



Gass. 
Book 






sy-yt^C^?' 






^/vr^j/^^ /K?*- 



DR. SCHAFF'S WORKS. 



Vol. 


1. 


Vol. 


II. 


Vol. 


III. 


Vol. 


IV. 


Vol. 


VI. 



HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 5th edition, revised 
and enlarged. 1890. 

Apostolic Christianity, A.D. l-ioo. 8vo, $4.00. 
Ante-Nicene Christianity, A.D. 100-325. 8vo, $4.00. 
Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity, A.D. 311-600. 

8vo, $4.00. 
Mediaeval Christianity, A.D. 590-1073. 8vo, $4.00. 
Modern Christianity — The German Reformation. 8vo, 
$400. 

Vol. VII. The Swiss Reformation. 8vo, $4.oo. 
[Vol. V. in course of preparation.] 

THE CREEDS OF CHRISTENDOM. 6th edition, revised, 3 vols. 
1890. 8vo, $15.00. 

Vol. I. History of Creeds. 

Vol. II. The Greek and Latin Creeds (with Translations). 

Vol. III. The Protestant Creeds (with Translations). 

THE TEACHING OF THE TWELVE APOSTLES ; or, THE OLD- 
EST CHURCH MANUAL. 3d edition, revised and enlarged. 
1889. 8vo, $2.50. 

ST. AUGUSTIN, MELANCHTHON, NEANDER. Three Biogra- 
phies. 1886. i2mo, $1.00. 

THE PERSON OF CHRIST: the Perfection of His Humanity Viewed 
as a Proof of His Divinity. 12th edition. 1882. i2mo, $1.00. 

BIBLE DICTIONARY. 4th edition. 1888. $2.00. 

THROUGH BIBLE LANDS: a Narrative of a Recent Tour in Egypt 
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A COMPANION TO THE GREEK TESTAMENT AND THE ENG- 
LISH VERSION; WITH FAC SIMILE ILLUSTRATIONS OF 
MSS. AND STANDARD EDITIONS OF THE NEW TESTA- 
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CHURCH AND STATE IN THE UNITED STATES; or, The Ameri- 
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CREED REVISION IN THE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES. 1890. 
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LITERATURE AND POETRY: Studies in the English Language, 
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dia. 1890. 8vo, $3.00, 



Theological Propedeutic 



A GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE 



STUDY OF THEOLOGY 



EXEGETICAL, HISTORICAL, SYSTEMATIC, AND PRACTICAL 



INCLUDING 



ENCYCLOPEDIA, METHODOLOGY, AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 



A MANUAL FOR STUDENTS 



BY 

PHILIP SCHAFF, D.D., LL.D. 

Professor of Church History in the Union Theological Seminary 

New York 



SECOND EDITION 



New York 
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 

1894 



Copyright, 1892, 
By The Christian Literature Co- 



Copyright, 1893, 
By Philip Schaff. 



im 






PBEFACE. 



This book is intended to be a guide for theological students 
in the first year of their course of preparation for the ministry 
of the gospel. It gives an outline of the various departments 
of theology, defines their nature and aim, their boundary lines 
and organic connection, their respective functions and value ; 
it sketches their history, and indicates the best methods of 
prosecuting their study. It answers the purposes of a map for 
orientation. Formal Encyclopgedia, Methodology and Bibliog- 
raphy are here combined. 

The new title Propedeutic, which I have chosen after a good 
deal of reflection, is more comprehensive and more appropriate 
than the usual title Encyclopaedia, which does not necessarily 
include Methodology and Bibliography, and is almost exclusively 
understood among us in the sense of an alphabetical dictionary 
of the matter of knowledge.* 

I beg the indulgence of the English reader for introducing a 
uniform terminology in the singular form for the several de- 
partments, as Isagogic, Canonic, Patristic, Apologetic, Dogmatic, 
Ethic, Symbolic, Polemic, Statistic, Homiletic, Catechetic, IAturgic, 
Poimenic, Evangelistic. Some of these terms are new and sound 
strange, but they are coined after analogy from the Greek, like 
most of our scientific designations. The singular form is 
shorter than the plural and more in accordance with Greek and 
German usage. The English usage is inconsistent almost be- 
yond remedy ; for while we have Logic (from XoyiKr\, sc. Texvr], 
or emorrjfiT}), Rhetoric, Music, Arithmetic (which are not likely 

* When I was appointed, in 1869, " Professor of Encyclopaedia and Sym- 
bolic," in the Union Theological Seminary, a doctor of divinity and editor 
of a leading religious periodical asked me, " Pray, tell me the name of your 
professorship." When I told him, he said with an expression of surprise : 
"As to Symbolic, I never heard of it in all my life ; and as to Encyclo- 
paedia, if you are a professor of that, they need no other professor ! " 



IV PREFACE. 

ever to be changed into Logics, Rhetorics, Musics, Arithmetics), 
we have, on the other hand, Mathematics, Metaphysics, Ethics, 
Statistics, etc. (which are as unlikely to be changed into the 
singular form). I am no authority in such matters, but I had 
to choose a uniform system. 

This is the first original work on Propedeutic in America. It 
aims to answer the same purpose for English-speaking students 
as the well-known JEncyclopadie und Methodologie of the late Dr. 
Hagenbach of Basel (whom I knew very well) has served and 
still serves for German students (who prize it as a useful 
Studentenbuch). Although we have now a good translation of 
it by my Methodist friends, Dr. Crooks and Bishop Hurst, with 
valuable bibliographical supplements, yet it must be remembered 
that Hagenbach wrote from the German standpoint for German 
and Swiss students, and is constantly undergoing improvements 
at the hands of new editors. The twelfth edition by Professor 
Reischle, which appeared in 1889, is enlarged to 600 pages. 

I have taught Propaedeutic for many years, first at Mercers- 
burg and later in New York, and have allowed the students to 
circulate imperfect copies of my lectures. These will now be 
superseded by the printed book. 

Propaedeutic is as yet a new study in this country, but it 
should be taught in every theological institution. No course is 
more necessary and useful for beginners. It is hoped that this 
manual will meet a growing demand of teachers and students. 

PHILIP SCHAFR 

Union TJieological Seminary, 

New York, Sept. 18, 1893. 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTION. 
CHAPTER PAGB 

1. Education « 3 

2. Theological Propaedeutic 6 

3. Encyclopaedia 6 

4. Formal and Material Encyclopaedia 8 

5. General and Special Encyclopaedia 8 

6. Theological Encyclopaedia 9 

7. Methodology and Bibliography 10 

8. Division and Arrangement 10 

9. History and Literature 11 

10. A Select List of Works Introductory to the Study of Theology. . 12 



BOOK I. 
RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 

FIEST SECTION: RELIGION. 

11. General Definition of Religion 17 

PART I. — OBJECTIVE RELIGION. 

12. Science of Eeligion 19 

13. History of Religion 19 

14. Philosophy of Religion 20 

15. Value of the Science of Religion 20 

16. The Religious World.— Statistics ...» 21 

17. Classification of Religions 29 

18. Natural and Revealed Religions 29 

19. Dualism, Polytheism, Pantheism, Monotheism 31 

20. Civilized, Semi-civilized, and Barbarian Religions • . 32 

21. Sensual, Ascetic, and Ethical Religions 33 

22." Division according to Psychological Faculties 33 

23. Turanian, Semitic, and Aryan Religions * 34 

24 Division according to the Ruling Ideas and Aims 35 

25. Tribal, National, and Universal Religions 35 

26. Designations of Ethnic Religions 36 



Vi CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER PAGE 

27. The Origin of Idolatry 37 

28. The Bible View of the Heathen World 38 

29. Fetichism 41 

30. Confucianism 41 

31. Brahmanism 43 

32. Buddhism 45 

33. Zoroastrianism 49 

34. The Eeligion of Ancient Egypt 50 

35. Classical Paganism 52 

36. The Scandinavian and Teutonic Mythology 53 

37. The Jewish Religion 55 

38. Mohammedanism 57 

39. Christianity 59 



PART II. — SUBJECTIVE EELIGION. 

40. The Eeligious Constitution of Man 63 

41. Eeligion and the Mental Faculties. — The Psychology of Eeligion 64 

42. The Intellectual Theory. — Piety and Knowledge 65 

43. Piety and Orthodoxy 67 

44. The Moral Theory. — Piety and Morality 69 

45. The Emotional Theory. — Piety and Feeling 71 

46. The Life Theory 73 

47. Individual, Denominational, and Catholic Piety 75 



SECOND SECTION: THEOLOGY. 

48. Definitions of Theology 77 

49. Natural and Eevealed Theology 79 

50. Theology and Eeligion 80 

51. Theology and Philosophy 82 

52. Theology and the Gospel Ministry 85 

53. Hints for the Study of Theology 87 

54. The Student's Library 91 

55. Division of Theology ° 92 



BOOK II. 
EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 

EXEGETIC— BIBLICAL LEAENING. 

• 

56. General Conception of Exegetical Theology 93 

57. Departments of Exegetical Theology 94 

58. The Bible 94 

59. General Hints for the Study of the Bible 96 

Select Tributes to the Bible 97 



CONTENTS. Vli 

FIEST SECTION: BIBLICAL PHILOLOGY (PHILOLOGIA 

SACEA). 

CHAPTER PAGE 

60. Importance of the Study of the Original Languages 101 

61. Classification of Languages 103 

62. The Semitic Languages 104 

63. The Hebrew 106 

64. History of Hebrew Learning 109 

65. The other Semitic Languages 114 

66. The Aramaic Languages 115 

67. The Biblical Aramaic and the Rabbinical Hebrew 116 

68. The Syriac and the Samaritan , 117 

69. The Assyrian 118 

70. The Arabic 121 

71. The Study of the Classics 123 

72. Christianity and the Greek Language 123 

73. The Dialects of the Greek Language 125 

74. The Hellenistic Dialect 126 

75. The Septuagint 127 

76. The Apostolic Greek. 127 

77. Peculiarities of the New Testament Writers 130 

78. History of the Study of Hellenistic Greek 135 

79. The Sub-Apostolic Greek 137 

80. The Ecclesiastical Greek 138 



SECOND SECTION: BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY (INCLUDING 

GEOGRAPHY, NATURAL HISTORY, AND SACRED 

ARCHEOLOGY). 

81. Idea of Biblical Archaeology 140 

82. Parts of Archaeology 141 

83. Sources of Archaeology 142 

84. Biblical Geography 143 

85. Natural History of the Bible 144 

86. Archaeology Proper 145 

87. History of Archaeology 146 

88. Literature of Archaeology 148 

THIRD SECTION: BIBLICAL ISAGOGIC (HISTORICO-CRITICAL 
INTRODUCTION TO THE BD3LE). 

89. Nature of Isagogic 149 

90. Object and Value of Isagogic 150 

91. Method and Arrangement of Isagogic 150 

92. Parts of Isagogic 151 

93. History of Isagogic 151 

94. Biblical Criticism 153 

95. Textual Criticism. — Its Aim 154 

96. Necessity of Textual Criticism 154 

97. Classes of Textual Variations 155 



VU1 CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER PAGE 

98. Number and Value of Various Eeadings 156 

99. Textual Criticism of the Old Testament 158 

100. Sources of the Old Testament Text 159 

101. The Hebrew Original and the Greek Septuagint 160 

102. Sources of the Text of the New Testament 163 

103. The Received Text and the True Text 166 

104. Canonic, or the Theory of the Canon 168 

105. The Canon of the Old Testament 169 

106. Origin of the Jewish Canon 170 

107. The Canon of the New Testament in the Ancient Church 172 

108. The Final Settlement of the Canon 175 

109. Protestantism and the Canon 175 

110. Special Isagogic 177 

111. Historical or Higher Criticism 177 

112. Authorship 179 

113. Known and Unknown Authorship 180 

114. Present State of Higher Criticism 181 

115. The Final Eesult 184 

FOURTH SECTION: BIBLICAL HERMENEUTIC AND EXEGESIS. 

116. Nature of Hermeneutic 186 

117. Aim of Interpretation 187 

118. Qualifications of an Interpreter 188 

119. Translation, Paraphrase, Commentary 189 

120. The English Version and Revision 190 

121. Philological and Historical Exegesis 194 

122. Theological Exegesis 195 

123. Practical and Homiletical Exegesis 196 

124. Exhaustive Commentaries 196 

125. Popular Commentaries 197 

126. Exegesis of the Old and New Testaments 197 

127. History of Exegesis 199 

128. Jewish Exegesis 200 

129. Jewish Exegesis before Christ 201 

130. Jewish Exegesis after Christ 203 

131. Epochs of Christian Exegesis 204 

132. Patristic Exegesis. A.D. 100-600 204 

133. Mediaeval Exegesis. A.D. 600-1500 207 

134. The Period of the Renaissance 209 

135. Exegesis of the Reformers 212 

136. Protestant Exegesis of the Seventeenth to the Middle of the 

Eighteenth Century 215 

137. Roman Catholic Exegesis of the Sixteenth down to the Eight- 

eenth Century 222 

138. Rationalistic Exegesis 223 

139. Swedenborgian Exegesis 226 

140. Exegesis of the Nineteenth Century 227 

141. Biblical History and Biblical Theology 232 

142. Hints for Exegetical Study 232 



CONTENTS. IX 



BOOK III. 
HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

CHAPTER PAGE 

143. General Conception of Historical Theology 234 

144. Biblical and Ecclesiastical History 235 

145. Agents of History 236 

146. Historical Development 239 

147. Central Position of Christ in History 241 

148. Auxiliary Sciences : Ecclesiastical Philology, Geography, Chro- 

nology, Diplomatic, Secular History 241 

149. Branches of Church History 244 

150. History of Missions 244 

151. History of Persecutions 245 

152. History of Eeligious Liberty 246 

153. History of Organization 246 

154. History of Councils 247 

155. History of Worship 248 

156. History of Christian Life 248 

157. History of Doctrines and Dogmas 249 

158. Sources of Church History 251 

159. The Written Sources '. 251 

160. The Unwritten Sources 253 

161. Duty of the Historian , 254 

162. The Mastery of the Sources 255 

163. Artistic Composition 256 

164. The Christian Spirit 257 

165. Uses of Church History 258 

166. Periods and Epochs 259 

167. Periods of Biblical History 260 

168. Periods of Christian Church History 260 

169. History of Israel 264 

170. History of Biblical Times 267 

171. The Life of Christ 268 

172. Literature on the Life of Christ 270 

173. The Apostolic Age 272 

174. Patrology and Patristic 273 

175. Patristic Literature 276 

176. Christian Archaeology 280 

177. The Reformation 280 

178. American Church History. — Roman Catholic America 285 

179. Church History of the United States 289 

180. Ecclesiastical Monography 294 

181. Literature of General Church History 296 

182. Historians before the Reformation 297 

183. Historians of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries 298 



X CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER PAGE 

184. Historians of the Eighteenth Century 300 

185. Historians of the Nineteenth Century 301 

186. Manuals, Text-books, and Tables of General Church History. . . . 304 

187. Hints for the Study of Church History 305 



BOOK IV. 
SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

188. General Conception 307 

189. Departments of Systematic. Theology 307 

FIRST SECTION: APOLOGETIC. 

190. Idea and Aim of Apologetic 309 

191. Necessity of Apologetic 310 

192. Limits of Apologetic 311 

193. Value and Use of Apologetic 312 

194. Epochs of Apologetic 313 

195. Literature of Apologetic 314 

SECOND SECTION: BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 

196. Nature and Object of Biblical Theology 316 

197. Connection of Biblical Theology with other Branches 317 

198. Importance of Biblical Theology 318 

199. Division and Method 319 

200. The Old and New Testaments 320 

201. Theology of the Old Testament 321 

202. Theology of the New Testament : The Teaching of Jesus 325 

203. The Teaching of the Apostles 327 

204. History of Biblical Theology 328 

205. Literature of Biblical Theology 330 

THIRD SECTION: DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. 

206. Definition and Contents of Dogmatic Theology 333 

207. The Sources of Dogmatic Theology 334 

208. Biblical Dogmatic 335 

209. Confessional or Churchly Dogmatic 336 

210. Dogmatic Theology of the Greek Catholic Church 337 

211. Dogmatic Theology of the Roman Catholic Church 338 

212. Dogmatic Theology of the Lutheran Church 339 

213. Dogmatic Theology of the Reformed and Calvinistic Churches . . 342 

214. Dogmatic Theology of the Anglican Church 344 

215. Arminian and Methodist Theology 346 



CONTENTS. XI 

CHAPTER PAGE 

216. Soeinian and Unitarian Theology 348 

217. nationalistic Theology 350 

218. Evangelical Union Theology 352 

219. The Theology of Eitschl 355 

220. Speculative and Critical Dogmatic 360 

221. Christocentric Theology 362 

222. History of Dogmatic Theology. — The Patristic Period 364 

223. The Scholastic Period 368 

224. The Theology of the Eeformation 371 

225. American Theology 374 

226. Calvinistic Theology in America 375 

227. New England Theology 377 

228. Channing and Bushnell 386 

229. Presbyterian Theology 388 

230. German Theology in America 402 

FOUETH SECTION: SYMBOLIC, POLEMIC, AND IEENIC. 

231. Symbols of Faith, or Creeds and Confessions 406 

232. Classification of Creeds 408 

233. Symbolic 410 

234. Historical Symbolic 411 

235. Polemical Symbolic 411 

236. Irenic 412 

237. Method and Arrangement 416 

238. History of Symbolic 417 

239. Symbolical Literature 419 

FIFTH SECTION: ETHIC. 

240. Christian Ethic 421 

241. Ethic and Dogmatic 422 

242. Philosophical and Christian Ethic 423 

243. Pagan and Christian Morality 424 

244. Ascetic and Evangelical Morality 426 

245. History of Christian Ethic 428 

246. Mediaeval Morals 434 

247. History of Protestant Ethic 436 

248. Literature on Ethic 440 

249. Casuistic 441 

250. Sociology 442 

SIXTH SECTION: GEOGEAPHY AND STATISTIC. 

251. Ecclesiastical Geography and Statistic 444 

252. Material for Statistic 445 

253. Comparative Statistic. — Lessons of Statistic 446 



Xll . CONTENTS. 



BOOK V. 
PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

CHAPTER PAGE 

254. General Conception of Practical Theology 448 

255. Branches of Practical Theology 449 

256. History and Literature of Practical Theology 451 

257. Theory of the Christian Ministry 454 

258. Different Conceptions of the Ministry 454 

259. Ecclesiology 455 

260. Church Law 457 

261. Collections and Manuals of Church Law 461 

262. Church Polity 463 

263. Literature on Church Polity 467 

264. Church and State 467 

265. Toleration and Liberty 469 

266. Homiletic or Keryctic 472 

267. Different Kinds of Preaching 474 

268. Homiletic Hints 475 

269. History of the Pulpit to the Time of the Reformation .'. . . 477 

270. The Protestant Pulpit on the Continent 483 

271. The English Pulpit 488 

272. The American Pulpit 496 

273. Homiletical Literature 499 

274. Catechetic 500 

275. Typical Catechisms 502 

276. Catechetical Literature 504 

277. The American Sunday-School 505 

278. Poimenic or Pastoral Theology 507 

279. Liturgic 508 

280. Liturgical Literature 508 

281. Worship and Art 509 

282. Hymnology 510 

283. History of Hymnody 511 

284. Hymnological Literature 515 

285. Evangelistic 517 

286. Epochs of Missions 518 

287. Missionary Literature 522 

Topical Index 525 

Index of Authors 532 

Bibliography 537 



THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 



INTRODUCTION. 
CHAPTER I. 

EDUCATION. 

1. Nature and Object of Education. 

Education * is the harmonious development of all the faculties 
of man, or the training of head and heart, to the highest attain- 
able degree of perfection and usefulness. This is the ultimate 
aim, though the ideal is never fully realized in this world. 

The pursuit of knowledge is based on the inborn love of truth ; 
it is an intense enjoyment and carries in it its own exceeding 
great reward. The possession of knowledge is still better ; else 
God omniscient could not be perfect in bliss, and man's future 
state would not be an advance upon the present. Hence Less- 
ing's preference for the search of truth to the possession of 
truth must be qualified. 

2. Kinds of Education. 

There are three kinds : moral, intellectual, and religious. 
These should be preceded and accompanied by physical educa- 
tion, i.e., the healthy development of the body, as the organ of 
the mind, according to the maxim, "Sana mens in corpore sanoP 

(a) Intellectual culture embraces all the knowledge, human 
and divine, which may be acquired by the cognitive faculty. It 
embraces in its widest sense aesthetic education as well, that is, 
the cultivation of the imaginative faculty, the sense of the beau- 
tiful, and the taste for art. 

(b) Moral training is the cultivation of the will and the affec- 
tions, and builds up character, which is even more important 
than knowledge. 

* From educe* e, educare, to lead forth, to draw out, to bring up, to 
educate. 



4 INTRODUCTION. 

(c) Religious education develops the spiritual or God- ward 
nature of man, and trains him for holiness, which is the highest 
order of goodness, and connects his temporal with his eternal 
welfare. Piety is the soul of morality. Man feels and fulfils 
his duty to his fellow-men in proportion as he realizes his relation 
and duty to God. 

3. Value of Education. 

(a) The material value : Education stores the mind with use- 
ful information and sound principles. 

(b) Formal value : Education strengthens and sharpens the 
various faculties to an easy and vigorous exercise, and practical 
efficiency. 

Knowledge, next to virtue, is the greatest power, and far more 
desirable than material wealth. But it may be a power for evil 
as well as for good, according to its spirit and tendency. Hence 
the prime importance of connecting moral and religious culture 
with intellectual. No true culture without virtue, no virtue 
without piety, no love to men without love to God. 

Beware of the pride of knowledge. Superficial knowledge 
puffs up (I. Cor. 8:1) j thorough knowledge makes humble. 
Genuine scholarship is modest, and knows how little we do 
know and how much more might be known, and will be known 
hereafter. Sir Isaac Newton says : "I am but a little child, 
picking up pebbles on the shore of the vast ocean of truth." 
There is an humble and Christian as well as a proud and 
unchristian agnosticism. The former arises from a knowledge 
of the boundaries of the human capacity and a sense of the 
infinite depth, height, and breadth of the truth, which we can 
here know only in part and see in a mirror darkly, but which 
we may hope to see hereafter face to face (I. Cor. 13 : 9) • the lat- 
ter starts in indifferentism or skepticism and ends in pessimism 
and nihilism. The one says : There is a, God, and we know him 
as far as he has revealed himself in nature, in reason, and in 
history (including the Church and the Bible), but no further ; 
the other says : There may be a God, but we do not know it ; 
there is probably none, and we need not care for him. 

4. Means and Schools of Education. 

It is carried on and promoted through countless natural and 
social influences ; the whole world of nature, the rising and set- 



INTRODUCTION. 5 

ting sun, ihe flowers of the field, the mountains and valleys, 
father and mother, friends and neighbors, books and newspapers, 
are educators. In the school, education is reduced to a system 
and methodical process under the superintendence of competent 
teachers, who devote their whole strength to this noble work, 
and who are the true philanthropists and benefactors of the race. 
There are school-trained, self-taught, and God-inspired men j 
but the difference is relative. Most educated men belong to the 
first class ; a few to the second (Shakespeare, Bcehme, Franklin, 
Lincoln) ; still fewer to the third class (Prophets and Apostles 
who were tieodidanToi and d-eonvevoroi). Christ differs from all, 
being self-taught and God-taught, without any special inspira- 
tion, but by a permanent indwelling of the Father in hi™ (Col. 
2:9). He taught the world as one who owed nothing to it, who 
came directly from God as " the Light of the world " (John 8 : 12). 

5. Degrees of Education. 

It is a process which grows with our growth. 

(a) Domestic Education or home-training is carried on under 
the supervision of the parents. The mother is the first and most 
impressive teacher of the child. 

The fifth commandment — child's prayer — child's catechism — 
the spelling-book — Mother Goose — Grimm's Household Tales 
— Work and Play — The Infant Sunday School — The Kinder- 
garten. 

(6) Elementary or Common Education. Either in close con- 
nection with the parish (Parochial School) ; or under the super- 
vision of the government (State School, Public School) ; or under 
private tuition. 

The Common School — the Sunday School — Catechetical In- 
struction. 

(c) Liberal or Classical Education begins in the Academy 
(in the American sense), or Preparatory Grammar School, and is 
carried forward in the College (Gymnasium, Lyceum). 

Classical education embraces Latin and Greek, Geography 
and History, Mathematics, Natural Science, Mental and Moral 
Philosophy, Literature, and Poetry. All necessary for a pro- 
fessional scholar and an accomplished gentleman. 

(d) Professional Education in the University (Universitas 
Literarum), where all knowledge, human and divine, is taught in 
the highest branches, or in special professional colleges and semi- 



6 INTRODUCTION. 

naries. The mediaeval Universities distinguished four learned 
professions or faculties : Theology, law, medicine, philosophy. 
This division now requires enlargement corresponding to the 
growth of science, with a suitable multiplication of academic 
degrees in history, philology, natural sciences, mathematics, fine 
arts, and useful arts, etc. 

(e) Theology is the chief among the professional studies, and 
prepares for the practical duties of the Christian ministry. It 
should be cultivated both as the knowledge of divine things for 
its own intrinsic value, and as a means for building up the 
Church. It is the queen of sciences (regina scientiarum), by far 
the noblest and sublimest branch of knowledge. U A Deo doce- 
tur, Deum docet, et ad Deum ducitP 

CHAPTER II. 

THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Theological Propaedeutic* is a general introduction to the 
scientific study of the Christian religion in its origin, progress, 
and present condition. 

It embraces Encyclopaedia (in the formal or systematic sense), 
Methodology, and Bibliography. 

The first is the principal part, the other two are auxiliary. 

Encyclopaedia teaches what to study ; Methodology, how to 
study ; Bibliography, what books to study. The first is con- 
cerned with the matter, the second with the method, the third 
with the means or helps. 

CHAPTER III. 

ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Encyclopaedia (literally, instruction in a circle, or a circle of 
instruction) t is a general survey of the sciences and arts, or a 
summary of general knowledge. 

* From TrpoTraideia, preparatory or elementary teaching of a boy (nalc )', 
TTponaidevu, to teach beforehand. Both words are used by Plato and Aris- 
totle. UpoTraldevaig, irponaidevfia, tynvnTiLov TrpoTraidev/j,a, occur in later 
writers. I have coined this term for theological use after the analogy of 
logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, etc. Other terms proposed, instead of the mis- 
leading term Encyclopaedia, are : Isagogic, Hodegetic, Theologic. 

t From ev kvkag), or iyKVKAiog TraiSeia, hyicvKAoTcatdeia, also kyuvKAioc dyioyrj, 
instruction in general knowledge, Classical writers use : v kyKvalioc 



INTRODUCTION. 7 

It embraced originally the cycle of liberal arts and sciences 
(artes liberates, or ingenuce), that is, the school learning which 
constituted a liberal education,* and which a free-born Greek or 
Roman youth had to acquire before he was fit for public life. 
These arts and sciences were gradually increased to seven; 
namely, grammar, dialectic (logic), rhetoric j music, arithmetic, 
geometry, and astronomy. In the middle ages, the first three 
were called Trivium, the other four, Quadrivium. Seven, three, 
and four were all regarded as sacred numbers.f 

In modern times the cycle of sciences and arts is greatly 
enlarged, especially by the immense progress of the knowledge 
of nature, philology, ethnology, and history in all its ramifica- 
tions. 

Encyclopaedic knowledge is a general knowledge of all that is 
worth knowing ; but it is, of course, limited and fragmentary, 
even with the most comprehensive scholars. A universal genius 
is the greatest rarity. There is a difference between encyclo- 
paedic and polyhistoric knowledge. The former is systematic 
and comprehensive, the latter is disconnected and incoherent. 
The one digests, the other devours, books. Examples of a philo- 
sophic, well-ordered and unified universality of knowledge : Aris- 
totle, Leibnitz, Alexander von Humboldt, Hegel, Goethe. Ex- 
ample of a chaotic universality of knowledge : Robert Burton, 
the anatomist of melancholy (well described by Taine, in his 
History of English Literature, I. 209). 

■xaideia, to. ejKvu^ia jia^rj\iara, or ra kyKVKkia, and somewhat later the com- 
pound word tyKVKko'Kai6zia, orbis doctrinal. Quintilian (Inst. I. 10, 1) : 
" Orbis ille doctrince quern Greed eynvnTiLov Traideiav vocant." To this Turnebus 
adds the remark : " Quce ostendit, inter omnes artes esse conjunctionem 
quandam et communionem." The compound kyKvalo-Kaidela (a barbarism) 
was first used perhaps by Galenus (d. c. 201). An "encyclical letter," or 
encyclical, is a letter intended for a certain number of persons or congre- 
gations, and addressed to all at once or in turn ; at present it is confined 
to letters of the Pope to all the bishops of the Roman church. 

* eTievdipa or e^ev&epia itaidua, the liberal education of a boy or youth (iralg ). 

t The division is derived from St. Augustin (De Ordine II. 12 sqq. ) and 
Cassiodorus (De Artibus ac Disciplinis Liberalium Artium ; Opera, ed. Migne 
II. 1150-1218). Augustin connects poetica with musica. (See Schaff, Hist, 
of the Chr. Church, TV. 611 sqq.) The division is expressed in the verse : 

u Grammatica loquitur, Dialectica verba docet, Bhetorica verba color at ; 
Musica canit, Arithmetica numerat, Geometria ponderat, Astronomia colit 
astra." 



8 INTRODUCTION. 



CHAPTER IV. * 

FORMAL AND MATERIAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

Encyclopaedia is either formal or material (real), according as 
it is treated with reference chiefly either to the form, or to the 
matter of knowledge. To avoid confnsion, the former might 
be called " Encyclopaedia " proper, the latter " Cyclopaedia." But 
the terms are used indiscriminately. 

1. Formal Encyclopaedia is a general outline of human knowl- 
edge in all its branches, showing the organic unity and univer- 
sality of knowledge, and proceeding from a common central 
principle which is constitutive and regulative. All branches of 
knowledge have their origin and unity in God. Science is the 
investigation and knowledge of truth; and truth is one in 
origin, essence, and aim, but involves infinite variety. 

The different sciences must, therefore, agree and form a liv- 
ing unit or an organic whole. They are related to each other 
as the branches of a tree, or as the members of the human body. 
None can be thoroughly understood and perfected without the 
rest. As they all proceed from God, they must ultimately return 
to him, that he may be " all in all." Science and philosophy 
superficially tasted may lead away from God, but thoroughly 
exhausted, they lead back to him. (Bacon.) 

2. Material Cyclopaedia is a summary of human knowledge as 
to its matter or contents. It may be arranged either in the 
systematic order of subjects according to their logical connec- 
tion, or lexicographically in alphabetical order for convenient 
reference. A good alphabetical Cyclopaedia is a necessity for 
every educated man. (Encyclopaedia Britannica; Chambers, 
Johnson, Appleton, Pierre Larousse, Brockhaus, Meyer, Ersch 
and Gruber.) 

CHAPTER V. 

GENERAL AND SPECIAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

Encyclopaedia may be further divided into general and special, 
according to its extent. 

1. General Encyclopaedia embraces all sciences and arts, or 
all branches of human knowledge. It is a condensed reference 
library. 



INTRODUCTION. 9 

2. Special Iicdy<'XvpdB(Ua embraces one or more departments 
of human knowledge. Thus we have Encyclopaedias of theology, 
law, medicine, philosophy, philology, physical sciences, biogra- 
phy, history, poetry, music, architecture, sculpture, painting, the 
mechanical arts, general and particular literature, etc. 



CHAPTER VI. 

THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

In Theological Encyclopaedia we must likewise distinguish 
between formal and material. 

1. The formal Theological Encyclopaedia is a general intro- 
duction to the study of theology and its various departments. 
It is an outline of the science of theology, giving an idea of its 
general character and aim, and showing the number, unity, 
variety, order, and connection of its different branches. It is, 
so to speak, a theological map, and furnishes a standpoint (66$ 
pot, nov ot&) from which the student may survey the whole field 
for preparatory orientation. 

It is impossible to avoid entering to some extent into the con- 
crete contents of the science itself and to anticipate much posi- 
tive information, but the main object must be always to bring 
out the organism of theology and to present a clear view of the 
nature, aim, and limits of the parts which constitute the whole. 
We must take our stand in the vestibule, rather than in the 
interior of the temple, and, looking from without, we shall be 
better able to sketch the architectural design and structure of 
the whole building. 

Formal Encyclopaedia stands related to theology in general, 
as Biblical Introduction is related to exegetical theology. It 
embraces in one connected whole all the introductory infor- 
mation which precedes the several departments of theology, as 
Biblical Introduction comprehends the introductory chapters to 
the several books of the Old and New Testaments and weaves 
them into a literary history of the Bible. 

2. The material Theological Cyclopaedia gives the matter of 
information in all departments of theological science. It may 
either follow the systematic or the alphabetical method. The 
latter is the more convenient for use. 

Works of this kind a student ought to have for constant 



10 INTRODUCTION. 

reference. A general theological Encyclopedia and a Bible 
Dictionary are— next to the Bible itself, with Grammar, Lexi- 
con, and Concordance— the most indispensable and useful books 
of a working library and a pastor's study. (General Theolog- 
ical Encyclopedias : Herzog, Schaff-Herzog, Wetzer & Welte, 
McClintock & Strong, Jackson. Bible Dictionaries: Winer,' 
Schenkel, Riehm, Kitto, Fairbairo, Smith, Schaff. See the Bib' 
liography at the end of this volume.) 



CHAPTER VII. 

METHODOLOGY AND BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Methodology gives directions how to study to the best advan- 
tage. Bibliography indicates the best helps to study. 

It is a good part of study to know how to do it and where to 
go for information* Method in the use of time gains and econ- 
omizes time and strength. A judicious distribution of hours 
and objects of study f acilitates it. Books are to a student what 
tools are to a mechanic, what furniture is to a housekeeper, what 
arms are to a soldier. Every student ought to acquire a library 
of standard works for constant use, and this can be done only 
gradually and under proper direction. 

It is the object of this book to combine Encyclopaedia, Metho- 
dology, and Bibliography. Methodology accompanies Encyclo- 
pedia by giving hints and suggestions as to the best way of 
pursuing the study of the several branches. Bibliography con- 
stitutes a separate department, and is put at the end of the 
volume for more convenient reference. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

DIVISION AND ARRANGEMENT. 

The method vand arrangement must correspond to the 
division of theological study, or the several parts which compose 
the organic whole of theology. But before the parts can be ex- 
amined, we must have a general idea of the whole. 

* "Scire ubi aliquid possis invenire, magna pars eruditionis est. n 



INTRODUCTION. 11 

We purpose to divide the work into five parts, or books, as 
follows : 

Book I. Religion and Theology in General. 

Nature, character, value, and aim of religion and theology j 
their relation to philosophy, to the Church, and to the ministry. 

Book II. Exegetical (Biblical) Theology. 

Christianity in its origin and authentic records. This in- 
cludes also the Scriptures of the Old Testament as a prepara- 
tion for Christianity. 

Book III. Historical (Ecclesiastical) Theology. 
Christianity in its past history down to the present time. 

Book IV. Syste:\iatic (Philosophical) Theology. 

Christianity in its present state : apologetic, dogmatic, ethic, 
etc. 

Book V. Practical Theology. 

Christianity in its aim and action for the future. 



CHAPTER IX. 

history and literature. 

Manuals for the use of theological students and ministers are 
almost as old as theology itself, and were known under differ- 
ent names, such as Stadium theologiciim; Ratio or Method us studii 
theologici ; Doctrina Christiana; Enchiridion; Introductio in 
theologiam universam; Isagoge historico-theologica, etc. They 
were at first confined to Biblical and patristic studies, and 
gradually enlarged in topics with the growth of history and 
theological science. They embrace miscellaneous information 
and directions, without system or order, and without any idea of 
the extent and organic unity of the theological sciences. Many 
of the older works, however, have still a historical and practical 
value, and deserve to be studied as mirrors of the theological 
education of their age and for the influence they have exerted. 

The term " Encyclopaedia " in the sense here used was first 
applied to theology towards the end of the eighteenth century 



12 INTRODUCTION. 

by S. Mursinna, Professor of Reformed Theology at Halle 
(d. 1795).* 

A systematic and scientific treatment began with Schleier- 
macher, who is the founder of the modern theological Encyclo- 
paedia. 

Siiice his time it has been specially cultivated in Germany 
by Hagenbach, Pelt, Rabiger, and others ; since 1884 also in 
England by Drummond and Cave. America has not yet pro- 
duced an original work on the subject, but has made Hagen- 
bach accessible to American students. 



CHAPTER X. 

A SELECT LIST OF WORKS INTRODUCTORY TO THE STUDY 

OF THEOLOGY, t 

The most important are marked by a *. 

I. Patristic and Scholastic Works. They are mostly confined to 
Biblical studies and the duties of the clergy. 

*Chrysostom (d. 407) : Be Sacerdotio (Ilepl lepuavvrjc). Best English 
translation, with notes, by Stephens, in SchafPs " Nicene and Post-Nicene 
Library," First Series, vol. IX. (New York, 1889). 

Ambrose (d. 397) : Be Officiis Ministrorum. 

*Augustin (d. 430) : Be Boctrina Christiana. Translated by Shaw, in 
Schaffs "Nic. and P.-Nic. Libr.," First Series, vol. II. (1887). 

Cassiodorus (d. 562) : Be Institutione Bivinarum Literarum (for the 
training of monks). 

Gregory I. (d. 604) : Begula Pastoralis. 

Isidor of Seville (d. 636) : Originum S. Etymologiarum Hbri XX. (em- 
bracing all the knowledge of his age). 

Rabanus Maurus (middle of the ninth cent.): Be Institutione Cleri- 
corum. 

Hugo of St. Victor (d. 1141) : Bidascalion. 

Vincentius de Beauvais (Bellovacensis, d. 1264) : Speculum Boc- 
trinale. 

II. Works from the Reformation to Schleiermacher, 1519-1811. 
*Erasmfs (d. 1536) : Batio seu Methodus * * * * ad veram theologiam 

(1519, 1522, etc.). 

Melanchthon (d. 1560) : Brevis Batio discendw Theologian. Only a few 
pages recommending the study of the New Testament before the Old, and 

* In his Prima? Lineai Encyclopaedia?, Halle, 1784; second ed., 1794. The 
term had been used before in reference to legal and medical sciences. 

t For a fuller list of literature see Pelt, EncyMopddie, 47 sqq. ; Hagen- 
bach, Encyhlopadie, Appendix to § 33 (92-114 of the 12th ed.); Rabiger, 
Tlieologih, 2-91 (a critical digest) ; Cave. Introd. to Theol., 32-37. 



INTRODUCTION. 13 

in the New Testament the Epistle to the Romans first, and the Gospel of 
John last, so that the doctrines of faith and of justification might be the 
beginning and end of theology. 

Bullinger (d. 1575) : Ratio studii theologici. Very practical, and going 
into the details of the daily life of the student. 

Similar works by Thamer, Chytr^eus, Weller, Hyperius, John Ger- 
hard, Alsted, Calixtus, Budde, Pfaff, J. G. Walch, Semler (the 
father of rationalistic criticism), Mursinna. 

*Herder's Brief e iiber das Studium der Theologie (2d ed., 1785, in 4 vols.) 
marks an epoch as an inspiring work of genius with universal sympathies, 
and is full of useful suggestions (especially on Hebrew poetry), but neither 
systematic nor complete. 

Works which more nearly approach the modern idea are the Encyclo- 
paedias of Nosselt (1786), Planck (1794), Tittmann (1798), Kleuker 

(1800), NlEMEYER (1803). 

Roman Catholic works by Ant. Possevinus (Bibliotheca selecta de Ra- 
tione Studiorum, 1607) ; *L. Ellies du Pin (Methode pour etudier la theol- 
ogie, 1716, translated into several languages) ; Oberthur (Encyclopaedia et 
Meihodologia, 1786, German edition, 1828) ; J. Seb. Drey (Kurze Einleitung 
in das Studium der Theologie, 1819). 

III. Works from Schleiermacher to the Present Time, 1811-1890. 

*Friedrich Schleiermacher (Prof, of Theology in Berlin, 1768-1834) : 
Kurze Darstellung des theologischen Studiums zum Behuf einleitender Vorles- 
ungen. Berlin, 1811, 2d ed., 1830. (English translation by William Farrer : 
Brief Outline of the Study of Theology, ivithLucke's Reminiscences of Schleier- 
macher. Edinburgh, T. & T. Clark, 1850.) 

This is a mere sketch, but the sketch of a master architect. It struck 
the key-note for his successors. Schleiermacher defines theology as a 
positive and practical science for the service and government of the 
Church, and divides it into three parts — philosophical, historical, and prac- 
tical. In the first he includes apologetic and polemic, in the second 
exegesis, church history, and systematic theology. He limits the first, 
overloads the second, and obliterates the distinction between exegetical, 
historical, and systematic theology. The whole scheme is wrong; but, 
nevertheless, the book is full of stimulating suggestions. Schleiermacher 
was the Origen of German Protestantism, neither orthodox nor heretical, 
but independent, original, emancipating, and stimulating in different di- 
rections. Those systems are gone, but the inspiration remains. 

Karl Rosenkranz (Hegelian philosopher, d. 1879) : Encyclopddie der 
theologischen Wissenschaften (Encyclopaedia of Theological Sciences), Halle, 
1831; 2d ed., 1845, much altered. This book enters more into the con- 
crete contents, while Schleiermacher dwells exclusively on the form. Rosen- 
kranz gives an epitome of historical, philosophical, and practical theology, 
like Hegel who, in his Philosophical Encyclopaedia, gives his whole system 
of philosophy in a nutshell. It is, in fact, a material encyclopaedia in 
systematic form, and condensed into a compend. 

F. A. Staudenmeier (Rom. Cath.) : Encyclopddie der theologischen Wis- 
senschaften. Mainz, 1836, 2d ed., 1840. He divides theology into specu- 
lative, practical, and historical, and dwells mainly on the first. Very 
prolix. 



14 INTRODUCTION. 

Jo. Clarisse: Encyl. tlieol. Epitome. Lugd. Batav., 1832, ed. II., 1835. 
Very full in the bibliographical department, including English books which 
are unknown to the majority of German divines. 

G. C. Ad. Harless (Orthodox Lutheran, d. 1879) : Theologische Ency- 
klopddie und Methodologie vom Standpunkte der protestantischen Kirche 
(Theological Encyclopaedia and Methodology from the Standpoint of the Pro- 
testant Church), Nurnberg, 1837. With copious literature and valuable 
sketches of the history of the theological sciences. 

Ant. F. L. Pelt (Prof, in Kiel, d. 1861) : Tlieol. EncyJclopddie als Sys- 
tem, etc. (Tlieological Encyclopaedia as a System), Hamb. and Gotha, 1843. 
Valuable for much historical and literary information, Christian spirit, 
and sound judgment. Three parts : I. Historical Theology (including 
Biblical Exegesis and Church History). II. Systematic Theology. III. 
Practical Theology. 

*K. E. Hagenbach (Swiss Eeformed, Prof, of Church History, School 
of Neander, d. 1874) : Encyklopaedie und Methodologie der theologischen Wis- 
senschaften (Encyclopaedia and Methodology of Tlieol. Sciences), Leipzig, 
1833 ; 9th ed., 1874 (the author's last, with a very modest preface) ; 10th 
ed., revised by E. Kautzsch (then Prof, at Tubingen, now at Halle) ; 11th 
ed., by the same, 1884 (544 pp.) ; 12th ed., again revised and enlarged by 
Prof. Max Eeischle, 1889 (600 pp.). Follows independently in the track of 
Schleiermacher, but is more full, popular, and practical, and includes 
extensive lists of books (mostly German). A most useful handbook for 
German and Swiss students ( " ein rechtes Studentenbuch "), written in excel- 
lent Christian spirit, and kept alive by constant improvements. Divided 
into General and Special Encyclopaedia, and the latter subdivided into 
Exegetical, Historical, Systematic, and Practical Theology. — A Hungarian 
translation by J. Bevesz, Pest, 1857. An English translation and trans- 
formation by Crooks and Hurst; and an abridgment by Weidner (see 
below). 

H. G. Kienlen : Encyclopedic des sciences de la theologie chretienne, 
Strasbourg, 1842 ; enlarged by the author in the Germ, ed., Darmstadt, 
1845. On the basis of Schleiermacher. 

Hofstede de Groot and L. G. Pareau : Encyclopaedia Theologi Chris- 
tiani, Groningen, 3d ed., 1857. Represents the Groningen school, which 
stands between the orthodoxy of Utrecht and the rationalism of Leiden. 

John M'Clintock (d. 1872) : Lectures on Theological Encyclopaedia and 
Methodology, ed. by John T. Short, Cincinnati and New York, 1873. A 
posthumous publication and imperfect outline of lectures freely delivered, 
but never elaborated for publication by the author. 

John Bapt. Wirthmuller (E. Cath. Prof, at Wurzburg) : Encyclopd- 
die der kathol. Tlieologie. Eine propddeutische Einleitung in ihr Studium. 
Landshut, 1874 (pp. 975). Divided into three parts : I. Realencyclopddie 
der Theologie ; II. Idealencyclopadie der Theologie ; III. Systematische Ency- 
clopddie der Theologie. 

I. T. Doedes (Prof, of Theol. in Utrecht) : Encyclopedic der Christlelijke 
Theologie, Utrecht, 1876; 2d ed., 1883 (272 pp). Divided into Exegetical, 
Historical, Dogmatic, and Practical Theology. Important for Dutch 
literature. 

J. P. Lange (d. 1884) : Grundriss der theologischen Encyklopadie mit 



INTRODUCTION. 15 

Einschluss der Methodologie, Heidelberg, 1877 (pp. 232). Original and sug- 
gestive. Divided into General and Special Encyclopaedia, and the latter 
again into Historical and Didactic Theology. Intended as a supplement 
to Hagenbach, with constant reference to his lists of literature. 

Richard Rothe (Prof, in Heidelberg, d. 1867) : Theologische Encyclo- 
pddie. Aus seinem Xachlassc hcrausgegeben von Hermann Buppelius, "Wit- 
tenberg, 1880 (pp. 158). Posthumous lectures of one of the greatest 
speculative divines of the 19th century, full of valuable thoughts, but not 
elaborated for publication. He divides theology, somewhat like Schleier- 
macher, into Speculative, Historical (including Exegetical), and Practical. 

J. K. von Hofmann (Prof, at Erlangen, d. 1877) : Encyliojxidie der 
Theologie nach Yorlesungen und Mamiscripten, Nordlingen, 1879. A pos- 
thumous work, ed. by Bestmann. A compendium of the author's cwn 
theology, in three divisions, systematic, historical (including Biblical), 
and practical. 

*J. F. Rabiger (Prof, in Breslau) : Theologik oder EncyMopadie der 
Theologie, Leipzig, 1880 (pp. 554). With an Appendix: Zwr Theologischen 
EncyMopadie. Kritische Betrachtungen (on Hofmann and Rothe), Breslau, 
1882. A material as well as formal encyclopaedia, representing theology 
itself in a nutshell (like Rosenkranz's work) ; combines the Schleiermach- 
erian and Hegelian modes of thought. Substitutes the term Theologie 
for Encyclopaedia. Divided, like Hagenbach's, into General and Special 
Encyclopaedia, and the Special into Exegetical, Historical, Systematic, 
and Practical. Literature is omitted, except in the Introduction. English 
translation by Rev. John Macpherson, Edinburgh (T. & T. Clark), 1884—85, 
2 vols., with notes and additions to literature. 

*Geo. R. Crooks (Prof, in Drew Seminary, Madison, N. J.) and Bishop 
John F. Hurst (both Methodists) : Theological Encyclopaedia and Method- 
ology. On the basis of Hagenbach. New York, 1884 (pp. 596). A useful 
adaptation of Hagenbach's book to the Anglo-American student, with ad- 
ditions of English and American literature. The translators do not state 
the edition of Hagenbach on which their work is based, nor distinguish 
between the original and the additions. 

Revere Franklin Weidner (Prof, in the Swedish Lutheran Seminary 
at Rock Island, 111.) : Theological Encyclopaedia and Methodology. Based on 
Hagenbach and Krauth (his unpublished lectures in the Luth. Seminary of 
Philadelphia). Rock Island, Augustana Book Concern, 1885-90, in four 
parts. The title sufficiently indicates the character of this compilation. 

James Drummond, LL.D. (Unitarian, Prof, of Theol. in Manchester 
New College, London) : Introduction to the Study of Theology. London 
(Macmillan & Co.), 1884 (pp. 262). Deals with the scientific form, not 
with the matter, of theology, and sets forth "the nature, method, and 
mutual relations of the various branches of theological study, so that the 
student may see more clearly the bearing of his labors, and view the sev- 
eral departments of his work, not as incoherent fragments, but as con- 
stituent members, each with an appropriate place, in a collective organ- 
ism which embraces them all." The first clear definition, in English, of 
formal Encyclopaedia. Drummond distinguishes six departments : I. Phil- 
osophy ; II. Comparative Religion ; IH. Biblical Theology ; IV. Ecclesias- 
tical History ; V. Systematic Theology ; VI. Practical Theology. 



16 INTRODUCTION. 

* Alfred Cave 'Independent, Principal, and Professor of Theology, of 
Hackney College, London) : An Introduction to Theology: its Principles, 
its Branches, its Results, and its Literature, Edinburgh (T. & T. Clark), 1886 
(pp. 576). The best original work on the subject in the English language ; 
with select lists of books, Continental, English, and American. Sixfold 
division of Theology: I. Natural Theology; II. Ethnic Theology; III. 
Biblical Theology; IV. Ecclesiastical Theology; V. Comparative Theol- 
ogy; VI. Pastoral Theology. 

E. Martin : Introduction a V etude de la theologie jprotestante. Geneve ? 
1883. An attempt at an independent reconstruction. 

A. Gretillat (Prof, of Theol. in the Independent Faculty of Neuchatel, 
and colleague of F. Godet, the commentator) : Expose de Theologie systema- 
tise. Tome I. Propedeutique. Neuchatel, 1885 (pp. 356). 

*Otto Zockler (Prof, of Church History in Greifswald, representing a 
mild and irenic type of evangelical Lutheran orthodoxy) : Handbuch der 
theologischen Wissenschaften in encyclopddischer Darstellung. Nordlingen, 
1883, 3d. ed., 1890, 4 vols. A useful work of a number of specialists 
under the editorial care of Zockler. Combines formal and material En- 
cyclopaedia, and consists of a series of manuals on all the departments 
of theological science by eighteen writers — Cremer, Grau, Harnack 
(Theodosius), Holscher, Kubel, Lindner, Luthardt, von Orelli, 
schafer, von scheele, fr. w. schultz, vlktor schultze, l. schulze, 
Strack, Volck, von Zezschwitz, Plath, P. Zeller. Zockler prepared 
the introductory part (Grundlegung) , the general church history, and, 
in part, dogmatic. He follows the fourfold division of Hagenbach, with 
departures in subdivisions. 

*Heinrich Kihn (Professor in Wtirzburg) : Encyklopadie und Metho- 
dologie der Theologie. Freiburg i.-B. (Herder), 1893 (pp. 573). The best 
work from a Roman Catholic, with full lists of literature. 

Jos. Henry Thayer (Professor of N. T. Criticism or Interpretation in 
Harvard University) : Books and their Use. Boston, 1893. With a select 
bibliography for students of the New Testament. 

Marvin R. Vincent (Professor of Sacred Literature in Union Theo- 
logical Seminary, New York) : Student's Handbook of Topics and Literature 
in New Testament Introduction. New York, 1893. A preparation for the 
use of larger works on New Testament Introduction. The topics of the 
critical study of the New Testament, and the literature of each ; a sketch 
of New Testament Criticism from the end of the fourth century to the 
present time ; a statement of the critical questions raised by each book, and 
a select catalogue of commentaries and illustrative works. 

*Georg Heinrici (Professor in Leipzig, formerly in Marburg) : Theolo 
gische Encyklopadie. Freiburg-i.-B., 1893 (pp. 372). The best since Hagen- 
bach. One of a series of short theological text books from the school of 
Ritschl, published by Mohr (Siebeck) at Freiburg i. B. Heinrici divides 
theology into two divisions : I. Historical : (1) Exegesis ; (2) Church His- 
tory. II. Normative : (1) Systematic Theology (Dogmatic and Ethic) ; (2) 
Practical Theology. 



BOOK L 

RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 
FIRST SECTION: RELIGION. 



CHAPTER XI. 

GENERAL DEFINITION OF RELIGION. 

Theology is the science of religion.* It has religion for its 
contents and object. Christian theology is the science of the 
Christian religion, as revealed in the Bible, developed in history, 
and believed and practiced in the Church. 

Religion is the relation of man to God. It is confined to 
rational creatures. It is fully realized in Christianity, as the 
universal religion of union and communion of man with God 
in Christ. 

The term religion (being Latin) does not occur in the original 
Bible, but it has been naturalized in all the Romanic and Ger- 
manic languages, and also occurs in the English Bible.f 

* Strictly speaking, theology (from deog and 7\,6yoq ) is the knowledge of God 
and divine things {Myoq irepl Oeov ml tcov deiuv). It is " a Deo, de Deo, in 
Deum." Bnt it necessarily includes also the knowledge of God's relation 
to man. Religion combines both factors. 

f Acts 26 : 5 (for dprjaKeia) ; Gal. 1 : 13, 14 ( " Jews' religion," for 'lovdaia/uog) ; 
James 1 : 26, 27 (for dprjaKeia). The adjective religious occurs Acts 13 : 43; 
James 1 : 26. The Revised Version retains the word, except in Acts 13 : 43, 
where it substitutes "devout proselytes" for "religious proselytes" (<re/3o- 
pevov irpoorjlvTuv). The word might have been properly used in the address 
of Paul to the Athenians, Acts 17:22, for SeiGidaijuovearepovg, "very reli- 
gious," "over-religious" (religiosiores, sehr gottesfurchtig) — that is, more 
religious than others, in building an altar even to " an unknown God," who 
is the true God in Christ, whom they unknowingly or unconsciously wor- 
shipped. The A. V. is certainly wrong in translating "too superstitious." 
Paul did not begin with insulting the Athenians, but with gaining their 
good will (captatio benevolentise). The R. V. substitutes "somewhat su- 
perstitious," with the margin "religious." The Amer. Rev. better, "very 
religious." 



18 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

It expresses both the subjective side, or religion in the heart 
of man (like our corresponding terms piety, godliness, holiness, 
etc.), and the objective aspect, namely, religion in its outward 
manifestation as an institution, or organization, or form of 
worship. It is the most general designation of the relation 
of man to God. The Bible terms are more concrete and 
specific* 

The meaning of religion does not depend on its etymology, 
which is uncertain. The most popular and significant, though 
perhaps not the correct, derivation is that of Lactantius from 
religare, to re-bind, re-unite — viz., man to God.f 

This derivation gives the precise idea of religion as actualized 
in Christianity. It implies : 

1. An original union of God and man — state of innocence. 

2. A separation in consequence of the fall — state of sin and 
death. 

3. A reconciliation by the atonement of Christ, the God Man 
and Mediator, and a consequent reunion of God and man — 
state of redemption. 

Other derivations from relegere (to reflect, to meditate) J; 
reeligere (to re-elect, viz., God whom we lost) j relinquere (to for- 
sake, viz., the world, a monkish derivation), are less significant, 
or liable to philological objections. 

We treat of religion first objectively, then subjectively. 

* Such as " fear of God," "love of God," "godliness " (evcefteta and evoeftfc, 
several times), "faith," "righteousness," "holiness," "worship," "service." 
These terms represent various aspects and states of religion or piety. 

f Lactantius, called "the Christian Cicero" on account of his elegant 
Latinity, Inst. Div., IV. 28 : " Hoc vinculo pietatis obstricti Deo religati sumus ; 
unde ipsa religio nomen accepit, non, ut Cicero interpretatus est, a relegendo." 
The objection that this derivation would require religatio does not hold ; for 
we have rebellio from rebellare, optio from optare, postulio from postulare, 
etc. Most theologians accept the etymology of Lactantius. The word might 
be derived from an obsolete verb, ligere (comp. the Sanscrit loh, the Latin 
lucere, lux, the Swiss-German lugen, the English look), like diligere, intelligere, 
negligere (dilexi, intellexi, neglexi, not dilegi, etc.), and would convey the 
fundamental idea of looking back with respect, reverence, which underlies 
all religion. " The fear of God is the beginning of wisdom." 

t This is Cicero's derivation, De Natura Deorum, II. 28, where he draws 
a line of distinction between super stitio (nomen vitii) and religio (nomen 
laudis), and says: " Qui omnia quse ad cultum deorum pertinerent, diligenter 
retractarent et tamquam relegerent, ii dicti sunt religiosi ex relegendo, tamquam 
ex intelligendointelligentes." Grammatically not impossible ; comp. legio from 
legere, regio from regere, contagio, oblivio, and other nouns in io from the 
verbs of the third conjugation. Nitzsch (in the " Studien und Kritiken," 
Vol. I., No. 3, and again in his " System der Christl. Lehre," 6th ed., § 6, 
p. 8) defends this derivation, but in the sense of respectus, observantia. So 
also A. P«ip, Religionspliilosophie (1879), p. 83. 



PART I. 
OBJECTIVE RELIGION. 

CHAPTER XII. 

THE SCIENCE OF RELIGION. 

Recent discoveries and the study of comparative philology 
have brought all the religions of the world within the reach of 
our knowledge. The architectural and sculptural monuments 
and hieroglyphic inscriptions of Egypt, the ruins and cuneiform 
literature of Assyria and Babylonia, the study of Sanscrit and 
the sacred books of India and Persia, the opening of the im- 
mense empire of China and the writings of Confucius, the 
contact with Japan, the explorations of the interior of Africa 
and acquaintance with its savage tribes — have enormously en- 
larged the field of observation. 

It is the aim of the Science of Religion to work up the results 
of these discoveries and researches into a connected whole. 
This may be done historically, or philosophically. Hence we 
have two branches of the Science of Religion, both of recent 
growth and great importance — History of Religion, and Phi- 
losphy of Religion. They supplement each other : one gives the 
facts, the other a rational explanation of the facts. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

HISTORY OF RELIGION. 

The History of Religion is an account of the origin, develop- 
ment, and characteristic features of all religions, from those of 
the lowest savage tribes to those of the most cultivated na- 
tions. The historian deals with facts as an accurate observer 
and impartial judge. He may be purely objective, or com- 



20 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

parative in his treatment. Comparative History of Religion 
corresponds to Comparative Geography, Comparative Philol- 
ogy, Comparative Anatomy, all of which are of recent origin. 
It also resembles Symbolic or Comparative Dogmatic, with 
this difference : the science of Comparative Religion has to 
do with all religions, including Christianity as one of them ; 
Symbolic is confined to the Christian religion, and discusses 
only the doctrinal controversies within the Church. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. 

The Philosophy of Religion rests upon the History of Re- 
ligion, and reduces its facts and phenomena to general princi- 
ples. It goes to the root of the matter, explains the religious 
nature of man and the essential character of religion, shows the 
relationship, the virtues and defects of the various religions, 
traces the laws of development from the lower to the higher 
forms, and ends with a vindication of Christianity, as the most 
rational and universal religion. 

The Philosophy of Religion forms the connecting link be- 
tween Philosophy and Theology, and approaches the domain of 
Apologetic and Dogmatic. 

Schleiermacher was the first to make the psychological na- 
ture of religion the subject of a keen scientific analysis ; while 
Hegel first attempted a philosophical classification of religions 
on the basis of historical development or evolution. To Eng- 
lish travellers and writers we owe most of our information 
about the religions of Asia and Africa. 

CHAPTER XV. 

VALUE OF THE SCIENCE OF RELIGION. 

The study of the Science of Religion, both in its historical 
and philosophical aspects, is of great value to the theologian, 
and especially also to the missionary in heathen lands. It en- 
larges and liberalizes the vision and furnishes the best proof 
for the following important facts : 

1. That religion forms the deepest current of the world's his- 



OBJECTIVE RELIGION. 21 

tory. It shapes public and private morals and controls more 
or less the course of government, science, art and civilization. 
In ancient times, and in the middle ages, religious and secular 
history were inseparably interwoven ; in modern times they are 
more distinct in proportion as the separation of Church and 
State and the principle of religious freedom advance ; neverthe- 
less they everywhere act and react upon each other. 

2. That Christianity is immeasurably superior to all other 
religions and is all the time progressing, with the certainty of 
ultimate supremacy. Comparison and contrast teach full 
knowledge. We cannot fully understand the English language 
without knowing the Saxon, Norman, Celtic and other elements 
of which it is composed ; nor can we fully understand and ap- 
preciate Christianity till we compare it with the heathen, Jewish 
and Mohammedan religions. 

3. That the best elements in the other religions are combined 
and perfected in the Christian, but remain an unfulfilled 
prophecy without it. Christianity meets and satisfies the 
noblest tendencies and deepest wants of the human mind and 
heart. It is true in the broadest sense that Christ came " not 
to destroy, but to fulfil." 

In the history of religion, heathenism may be compared to 
the starry night, Judaism to the full moon and early dawn, 
Christianity to the bright sun. 

CHAPTER XVI. 

THE RELIGIOUS WORLD. — STATISTICS. 

The religious world is divided into Christian, Jewish, Mo- 
hammedan, and heathen. The entire population of the globe 
numbers now (in 1891), in round figures, 1,467,600,000. The 
Christian religion embraces about 450,000,000; that is, more 
than one-fourth of it. Among heathen religions, Confucian- 
ism, Buddhism, and Brahmanism count the largest following. 
Then comes Mohammedanism, and last, though not least, the 
Hebrew religion, the most tenacious of all. 

It should be kept in mind that numerical estimates usually 
refer only to nominal membership, without regard to internal 
condition. Only in the United States a distinction is made 
between communicant members and nominal members or 
hearers. 



22 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

The Christian religion prevails all over Europe and America, 
and is the only religion of these two continents (with the excep- 
tion of the Jews scattered over both, the followers of Islam in 
Constantinople and the Balkan States, and the remnant of hea- 
then Indians in America). It has also a large following in the 
other three continents, without distinction of race and language. 
It is divided into three great sections : the Greek Church in the 
East 5 the Roman Church in the South of both hemispheres and 
all other parts of the world ; and the Protestant Churches, 
chiefly among the Northern and Western nations. 

The total number of Christians in the year 1891 probably ex- 
ceeds 450 millions, and may be thus divided : Roman Catholics, 
about 220 millions; Protestants, 140 millions; Orientals or 
Greeks (including the Eastern Schismatics), 90 millions. 

The comparative statistics of this century are in favor of 
Protestantism. According to the statement of Dr. Zockler, the 
Protestants have, from 1786 to 1886, increased 230 per cent., 
the Greek Church 207 per cent., the Roman Catholic Church 
192 per cent. It should be remembered, however, that Protest- 
antism is divided into a large number of denominations and 
sects ; while the Roman Catholic Church is one compact and 
centralized organization. The progress of the Greek Church is 
due chiefly to the growth and conquests of the Russian Empire ; 
the progress of Protestantism, to the'ouperior intelligence, en- 
ergy, enterprise, and westward spread of the Protestant na- 
tions, especially the English and American. 

The Jews are scattered among all Christian and Mohammedan 
nations, and prosper most in Germany, England and the 
United States. 

Mohammedanism, or Islam, controls the Turkish Empire, and 
is widely spread in Persia, India, Egypt, and among the negroes 
in the interior of Africa, but has no hold on Europe (except in 
Constantinople), and no followers in America and Australia. 

Brahmanism is the dominant religion of India, but is honey- 
combed by Christian ideas and influences. Buddhism extends 
over Thibet, the Burmese Empire, China, Japan, Siam, Ceylon, 
etc. Confucianism is the state religion of China. None of 
these three Asiatic religions has any foothold in Africa, Europe, 
or America. Christianity is the only religion which by its 
omnipresence on earth betrays its universal adaptation to men. 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



23 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



The following statistical tables represent the latest estimates, 
varying from 1880 to 1890.* 

THE WORLD'S POPULATION IN 1890. 

From Petermann's Mittheilungen, Erganzungsheft No. 101. Die Bevolkerungder Erde, 
ed. by Wagner & Supau. Gotha, 1891. 

Europe 357,379,000 

Asia 825,954,000 

Africa 163,953,000 

Australia 3,230,000 

America 121,713,000 

Oceanic Islands 7,420,000 

Polar Regions 80,400 

Total 1,479,729,400 

GENERAL RELIGIOUS STATISTICS, 1885. 

Christians, total number, about f 430, 284, 500 

Jews 7,000,000 

Mohammedans 230,000,000 

Heathen 794,000,000 

Total 1,461,284,500 



STATISTICS OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION ACCORDING TO ITS 
THREE CHIEF DIVISIONS, 1885. 



America . . 

Asia 

Africa 

Australia . 


R. Catholics. 

154,479,500 

. . 49,780,000 

. . 8,829,000 

. . 2,148,000 

702,000 


Protestants. 

. 78,875,000 . 
. 45,200,000 . 

2,866,000 . 

1,092,000 . 

2,296,000 . 

. 130,329,000 . 


Orientals. 

. 71,405,000 . 

10,000 . 

. 9,402,000 . 

. 3,200,000 . 


Christians 
in all. 

. 304,759,500 

. 94,097,000 

. 21,097,000 

6,440,000 

2,998,000 


Total . 


. . 215,938,500 


. 84,017,000 . 


. 429,391,500 



* I have used the last issues of the best statistical authorities, viz., The 
Statesman's Year Book for 1893, edited by J. Scott Keltie (London, Macmillan 
& Co.); Whitaker's Almanack for 1893 (London); Boehm und Wagner's Die 
Bevolkerung der Erde (Gotha) ; Wagner's Geographisches Jahrouch (Gotha, 
1888 and 1889); Statistisches Jahrbuch des Deutschen Beichs (Berlin, 1887); 
Zockler's statistical tables in his Handbuch der Theol. Wissenschaften, 3d ed., 
1889, Bd. II. 820 sqq. The statistics of the United States are drawn from 
the official Census Bulletin of Washington (1890 and 1891) as published at 
Washington, 1893, and from a summary of the New-York Independent. 

f This was a low estimate ; the latest estimates count about 450,000,000 
Christians. » 



24 



THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 



STATISTICS OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 

RUSSIA, 1888. 

Orthodox Greek Catholics, without army and navy . . 69,808,497 

United Church and Armenians 55,000 

Roman Catholics 8,300,000 

Protestants 2,950,000 

Jews 3,000,000 

Mohammedans 2,600,000 

Pagans 26,000 

FRANCE, CENSUS OF 1881. 

Roman Catholics 29,201,703 — 78ft- of total population. 

Protestants 692,800 — lft " 

(as compared with 584,757 in 1872) 

Jews 53,436 

Non-declarants of religious belief. 7,684,906 
Various creeds 33,042 

SWITZERLAND, 1888. 

Protestants 1,724,257 

Roman Catholics 1,190,008 

Jews 8,386 



Per cent. 




Per cent. 


of Pop. 


1885. 


of Pop. 


• • 62ft- . 


. 29,369,847 . 


• 62ft- 


35 j o 


. 16,785,734 . 


• 35ft 


2 
10- 


125,673 . 


100 


1 2 

J-TTT • 


563,172 . 


J-] 


— L,r 


11,278 . 


_2._ 
100 



GERMAN EMPIRE, 1880 AND 1885. 

1880. 

Protestants 28,331,152 

Roman Catholics 16,232,651 

Other Christians 78,031 

Jews 561,612 

Others and unclassified . . 30,615 

Total population in 1885, 46,855,704; in 1890, 49,424,135. 

Adherents of the Greek Church are included in " Roman Catholics " ; but 
the Old Catholics are reckoned among " Other Christians." Certain changes 
were introduced in 1885 in the grouping of "Other Christians " and " Others," 
which explain the differences between the returns for these groups for 1880 
and 1885. 

ENGLAND AND WALES, 1887.* 

Established Church (Episcopal) 13,500,000 

Dissenters of all descriptions 12,500,000 

Roman Catholics (in 1887) 1,354,000 

Jews (estimated in 1883) 70,000 

* Whitdker's Almanack for 1892, p. 249, makes the extraordinary state- 
ment that the number of religious denominations in England is 254. The 
Statesman's Manual, p. 50, ipeaks of 180. This is about as misleading as 
Voltaire's frivolous remark that England had fifty religions and only one 
kind of soup. In the table of Religious Statistics in Whitaker } s Almanack, 
p. 387, we find the following societies counted as separate " denominations " : 
Christian Soldiers, Blue Ribbon Gospel Army, British Israelites, Church of 
Islam, Crusade Mission Army, Hosanna Army, Nazarenes, Open Brethren, 
Polish Jews, Psalms of David Society, Woman's Mission, Worshippers of 
God, etc., etc. 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 25 

SCOTLAND, 1889. 

Presbyterians: 1. Established Church (1889) . . . 587,954 

2. Free Church (1890) 1,165,000 

3. United Presbyterian Church . 184,354 

Roman Catholic Church 326,000 

Episcopal Church 80,000 

IRELAND, 1881. 

Roman Catholics 3,960,891 Independents 6,210 

Episcopalians 620,000 Baptists 4,879 

Presbyterians 470,734 Quakers 3,645 

Methodists 48,839 Jews 472 

ESTIMATED NUMBERS OF RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS 

AMONGST ENGLISH-SPEAKING COMMUNITIES 

THROUGHOUT THE WORLD, 1890. 

[From WhitaJcer's Almanack for 1892, p. 387.] 

Episcopalians 23,000,000 

Methodists of all denominations 16,960,000 

Roman Catholics 15,200,000 

Presbyterians of all descriptions ..... 11,100,000 

Baptists of all descriptions 8,600,000 

Congregationalists 5,500,000 

Free Thought, various 3,500,000 

Unitarians, under several names 1,250,000 

Minor religious sects 4,000,000 

German, or Dutch, Lutheran, etc 1,750,000 

Of no particular religion 13,500,000 

English-speaking population 104,360,000 

RELIGIOUS STATISTICS OF THE UNITED STATES. 

[From an elaborate article in The Independent, New- York, July 31, 1890.] 

GENERAL SUMMARY BY FAMILIES. 

, 1889 N ^ 1890 N 

Chs. Min. Com. Chs. Min. Com. 

Adventists 1,575 840 100,712 1,773 765 58,742 

Baptists 46,624 32,017 4,078,589 48,371 32,343 4,292,291 

Christian Union 1,500 500 120,000 1,500 500 120,000 

Congregationalists . . 4,569 4,408 475,608 4,689 4,640 491,985 

Friends 763 1,017 106,930 763 1,017 106,930 

German Evangel. Ch. 675 560 125,000 850 665 160,000 

Lutherans 6,971 4,151 988,008 7,911 4,612 1,086,048 

Mennonites 420 605 100,000 563 665 102,671 

Methodists , . 50,680 29,770 4,723,881 54,711 31,765 4,980,240 

Moravians 98 111 11,219 101 114 11,358 

New Jerusalem 100 113 6,000 100 113 6,000 

Presbyterians 13,349 9,786 1,180,113 13,619 9,974 1,229,012 

Episcopalians 5,159 4,012 459,642 5,227 4,100 480.176 

Reformed 2,058 1,378 277,542 2,081 1,379 282,856 

Roman Catholics.... 7,424 7,996*7,855,294 7,523 8,332*8,277,039 

Salvation Army .... 360 1,024 8,771 

Unitarians 381 491 20,000 407 510 20,000 

Universalists 721 691 38,780 732 685 42,952 

Grand Total 142,767 98,436 20,667,318 151,261 103,303 21,757,171 

* Catholic population (nominal). This applies also to Lutherans. 



26 



THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 



STANDING ACCORDING TO NUMBERS. 
BY FAMILIES. 
CA8. 

1 Methodists 54,711 

2 Roman Catholics* 7,523 

3 Baptists 48,371 

4 Presbyterians 13,619 

5 Lutherans 7,911 

6 Congregationalists 4,689 

7 Episcopalians 5,227 



Min. 


Com. 


31,765 
8,332 . 


. 4,980,240 
. 4,676,292 


32,343 . 


. 4,292,291 


9,974 . 
4,612 . 


. 1,229,012 

. 1,086,048 


4,640 . 


491,985 


4,100 . 


480,176 



BY DENOMINATIONS. 
Chs. 

1 Roman Catholics 7,523 

2 Regular Baptists f 33,588 

3 Methodist Episcopal 22,103 

4 Methodist Episcopal South 11,767 

5 Presbyterian (Northern) 6,727 

6 Disciples of Christ 7,250 

7 Congregationalists 4,689 

8 Protestant Episcopal 5,118 

9 African M. E, Zion 3,500 

10 African M. E 3,800 

11 Lutheran Synodical Conference 1,811 

12 " General Council 1,557 

13 United Brethren 4,265 

14 Reformed (German) 1,535 

15 Colored Methodist Episcopal .. . 2,100 

16 Presbyterian (Southern) 2,321 

17 " Cumberland 2,689 

18 German Evangelical 850 

19 Lutheran General Synod 1,423 

20 Methodist Protestant 2,003 

21 Evangelical Association 1,958 



Min. 


Com. 


8,332 . 
21,175 . 
13,279 . 

4,862 . 

5,936 . 


. 4,676,292 
. 3,070,047 
. 2,236,463 
. 1,161,666 
753,749 


3,600 . 


750,000 


4,640 . 


491,985 


3,980 . 


470,076 


3,000 . 


412,513 


3,000 . 
1,291 . 


400,000 
365,620 


899 . 


264,235 


1,455 . 


199,709 


813 . 
1,800 . 


194,044 
170,000 


1,145 . 


161,742 


1,595 . 


160,185 


665 . 


. . 160,000 


951 . 
1,441 . 


151,365 
147,604 


1,187 . 


145,703 



ACCORDING TO POLITY. 

We do not claim that the following classification is perfect. It is difficult 
to know where to place the Lutherans. They claim to be Congregational 
in polity ; but they give to Synod a function which pure Congregationalism 
does not permit. Therefore we classify them as Presbyterian. 

Episcopal. Chs. Min. Com. 

Methodists 50,924 . . 29,318 . . 4,780,406 

Roman Catholics 7,523 . . 8,332 . . 4,676,292 

Episcopalians 5,227 .. 4,100 .. 480,176 

Moravians 101 . . 114 . . 11,358 

Total Episcopal 63,775 . . 41,864 . . 9,948,232 

In 1889 61,507 .. 39,958 .. 9,433,196 

* "We estimate the number of Catholic communicants on the basis of 
8,277,039 Catholic population, using the ratio which Lutheran statistics 
has established between souls and communicants in the Synodical Con- 
ference, viz., 1.77." — Ed. of The Independent. 

t Really three denominations. 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



27 



Congregational. Chs. 

Baptists 48,371 

Christian Union 1,500 

Congregationalists 4,689 



Friends 
Adventists . . . 
Methodists . . . 
Miscellaneous 



763 

830 

85 

1,239 



Total Congregational 57,477 

In 1889 56,478 

Presbyterian. Chs. 

Presbyterians ... 13,619 

Lutherans 7,911 

Reformed 2,081 

Methodists 3,702 

German Evangelical 850 

Mennonites 563 

Church of God 525 

Adventists 943 



Total Presbyterian 30,194 

In 1889 25,722 



Min. 
32,343 
500 

4,640 

1,017 
546 
130 

1,308 

40,484 
39,719 

Min. 

9,974 

4,612 

1,379 

2,317 

665 

665 

491 

218 

20,321 
19,065 



Com. 

4,292,291 

120,000 

491,985 

106,930 

31,000 

9,000 

68,952 

5,120,158 
4,928,619 

Com. 

1,229,012 

1,086,048 

282,856 

191,104 

160,000 

102,671 

33,000 

27,742 

3,112,433 

2,888,228 



AS TO MEMBERS. 



Episcopal polity 

Congregational polity . 
Presbyterian polity . . . 



Episcopal polity 

Congregational polity . 
Presbyterian polity. . . 



AS TO MINISTERS. 



9,948,232 
5,120,158 
3,112,533 



41,864 
39,484 
20,321 



Episcopal polity 

Congregational polity . 
Presbyterian polity . . . 



AS TO CHURCHES. 



63,875 

57,477 
30,094 



CATHOLIC STATISTICS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
[From the third Census Bulletin, No. 101, issued at Washington, D. C, July 23, 1891.] 

This represents all the bodies calling themselves " Catholic." The Roman 
Catholic Church has congregations in every State and Territory of the Union, 
including Alaska and the District of Columbia. It is divided into 13 prov- 
inces, which embrace 13 archdioceses, 66 dioceses, 5 vicariates apostolic, 
and 1 prefecture apostolic. The other "Catholic" bodies are confined to 
one or more States. The statistics were gathered under the care of Henry 
K. Carroll, LL.D. (one of the editors of The Independent). 

Number of Value of Communi- 

Churches. organiza- Church Seating church prop- cants or 

tions. edifices, capacity. erty. members. 

Roman Catholic 10,221 8,765f 3,366,633 $118,381,516 *6,250,045 

Greek Catholic (Uniates) 14 13 5,228 63,300 10,850 

Russian Orthodox 12 23 3,150 220,000 13,504 

Greek Orthodox 11 75 5,000 100 

Armenian 6 335 

Old Catholic 4 3 700 13,320 665 

Reformed Catholic 8 .... .... .... 1,000 

* This figure differs from the one given in The Independent in the preceding table, 
which gives the total number of Roman Catholics 8,277,039, and the number of com- 
municants 4,676,292. 



28 



THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 



ADDITIONAL KELIGIOUS STATISTICS OF THE 
UNITED STATES IN 1892. 



The Religious Statistics of the Eleventh Census are in course of prepa- 
ration under the care of Henry K. Carroll, LL. D., and will show the number 
of congregations, ministers, church edifices, and communicants of each 
denomination, with the seating capacity and value of all houses of worship. 

The number of denominations is stated to be over 140, besides many in- 
dependent congregations. 

We give the official figures for some of the minor denominations not 
mentioned in the preceding pages : 

Number of 
Denominations. organiza- 

tions. 

United Presbyterian Church 866 

Church of the New Jerusalem 154 

Catholic Apostolic Church 10 

Salvation Army 329 

Advent Christian Church 580 

Evangelical Adventists 30 

Life and Advent Union 28 

Seventh-day Baptists 106 

Seventh-day Baptists (German) 6 

General Six Principle Baptists 18 

Christian Church, South 143 

Sehwenkfeldians 4 

Theosophical Society 40 

Brethren in Christ 63 

Cumberland Presbyterian Church 2,791 

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day 

Saints (Mormons) 425 

Reformed Episcopal Church 83 

Moravian Church 94 

German Evangelical Synod of North 

America 870 

German Evangelical Protestant Church 

of North America 52 

Plymouth Brethren, 1 109 

II 87 

" " III 

IV 

Seventh Day Adventist 995 

Church of God (Seventh Day) 29 

Christian Connection 1,281 

Cumberland Presbyterian Church, (Col- 
ored) 238 

Reorganized Church of Christ of Latter- 
day Saints 431 

Dunkards (Old Order) 720 

" (Conservative) 57 

" (Progressive) 128 

Jewish, Orthodox 316 

Jewish Reformed 217 

Welsh Calvinistic Methodist 187 

Spiritualists 334 

Eree Methodist 

Social Brethren 20 

Christian Scientists 7 

Christian Reformed 99 

Shakers 15 

United Zion's Children 25 

Independent Churches of Christ in 

Christian Union 294 

Friends ( Hicksite) 201 

" (Wilburite) 52 

" (Primitive) 9 







Value of 


Communi- 


Church 


Seating 


church prop- 


cants or 


edifices. 


capacity. 


erty. 


members. 


8314 


264,298 


$5,408,084 


94,402 


87$ 


20,810 


1,386,455 


7,095 


3 


750 


66,050 


1,394 


27 


12,055 


37,350 


8,662 


294 T V 


80,286 


465,605 


25,816 


221 


5,855 


61,400 


1,147 


m 


2,250 


16,790 


1,018 


784 


21,467 


264,010 


9,123 


31 


1,960 


14,550 


194 


13| 


3,600 


19,600 


937 


135 


46,005 


137,000 


13,004 


6 


1,925 


12,200 


306 


1 


200 


600 


695 


34 


13,605 


57,750 


2,080 


2,008/s 


662,807 


3,515,511 


164,940 


265f 


92,102 


825,506 


144,352 


84 


23,925 


1,615,101 


8,455 


114 


31,615 


681,250 


11,781 


785& 


245,781 


4,614,490 


187,432 


52 


35,175 


1,187,450 


36,156 
2,279 
2,364 


"i 




1,265 


l 




200 


1,081 
446 


418J 


94,627 


644,'675 


28,891 


1 


200 


1,400 


647 


962| 


301,692 


1,637,202 


90,718 


192| 


53,914 


202,961 


13,439 


1224 


30,790 


226,285 


21,773 


854t& 


353,586 


1,121,541 


61,101 


31| 


6,250 


24,970 


2,088 


954§ 


32,740 


145,770 


8,089 


122 


46,837 


2,802,050 


57,597 


179 


92,397 


6,952,225 


72,899 


1894 


44,445 


625,875 


12,722 


30~ 


20,450 


573,650 


45,030 


1102 




805,085 


22,113 


11x2 


8,700 


8.700 


913 


7 




40,666 


7,889 


106 


33,755 


428,500 


12,470 


16 


5,650 


36,800 


1,728 


25 


3,100 


8,300 


525 


1834 


68,000 


234,450 


18,214 


213 


72,568 


1,661,850 


21,992 


52 


13,169 


67,000 


4,329 


5 


1,050 


16,700 


232 



OBJECTIVE RELIGION. 29 

CHAPTER XVII. 

CLASSIFICATION OF RELIGIONS. 

The most popular classification of the religious world is s 
Christianity, Judaism, Mohammedanism, and Heathenism .* 

But Heathenism implies an indefinite number of distinct 
religions which demand more specific classifications. These 
vary according to the principle of distinction and the standpoint 
from which the religions are viewed. 

The religions may be classified according to their origin, or 
the controlling idea of God, or their relation to culture and 
literature, or their moral character and aim, or the predominant 
psychological faculty, or the prevailing race and nationality, or 
the extent of influence and destination. 

In every one of these aspects, Christianity stands first, with- 
out a rival, and derives from comparison and contrast a new 
evidence for its divine origin and character. The sacred books 
of the non-Christian religions — the King of Confucius, the 
Vedas of the Brahmans, the Tripitaka of the Buddhists, the 
Koran of the Mohammedans, and the Talmud of the Jews — • 
contain many germs of truth and lessons of wisdom, but bear 
no comparison with the Bible, which outshines them all as the 
sun outshines the moon. It is the only book of religion adapted 
to all races, nation alities, classes, and conditions of men, and is 
constantly making conquests in all countries and languages of 
the globe. 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

NATURAL AND REVEALED RELIGIONS. 

In regard to origin, the religions are divided into two classes : 
natural and revealed. This is the most important distinction, 
and determines all other differences. 

1. Natural religions : all forms of heathenism and idolatry. 

They grow wild in the soil of human nature and produce wild 
fruits. Man, though fallen, weak and corrupt, still remains a 

* James Freeman Clarke counts Ten Great Religions. See his two popu- 
lar works under this title. Boston, 1871 and 1883. Several editions. 



30 THEORETICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

religious being and gropes in the dark for the true religion, 
under the guidance of God, who " suffered all the Gentiles to 
walk in their own ways, and yet left not himself without wit- 
ness " (Acts 14 : 16, 17), who " made of one every nation of 
men . . . that they should seek God, if haply they might feel 
after him and find him." (Acts 18: 26, 27.) The heathen 
religions are the prodigal children who waste their inheritance, 
but remember their father's house and will penitently return to 
it in their own appointed time. They are essentially false, but 
with glimpses of truth. No error can live without some element 
of truth, of which it is the caricature and the perversion. Of 
all forms of paganism, Buddhism makes the nearest approach 
to the truth ; and yet in its final issue (Nirvana) it is farthest 
from the truth. 

2. Revealed religions : Christianity and Judaism. 

They proceed from God, and teach the truth and the way of 
salvation. They are recorded in the Holy Scriptures and 
exemplified in the history of Israel and the history of the Chris- 
tian Church. They rest on the testimony of divinely called and 
inspired prophets and apostles and on the supreme authority 
of Jesus Christ. 

• Judaism, or the religion of the Old Covenant (from Abraham 
to John the Baptist), is the preparatory revelation, the truth in 
its genesis, Christianity in shadowy anticipation* It becomes 
false by becoming anti-Messianic or anti-Christian. Christian- 
ity, or the religion of the New Covenant, is the full and final 
revelation of the will of God concerning our faith and duty and 
the way of life. Judaism is relatively true, Christianity is 
absolutely true. The Old Covenant has the truth in the form 
of promise and type ; the New Covenant has the truth in the 
form of fulfilment and substance. "The New Testament is 
concealed in the Old; the Old Testament is revealed in the 
New" (St. Augustin.) "The law was given by Moses; grace 
and truth came by Jesus Christ." (John 1 : 17.) 

No higher religion than the Christian can be expected, but its 
apprehension and application are gradual and progressive, like 
the revelation itself ; for God deals with men as a wise educa- 
tor who adapts himself to the differences of age, capacity and 
condition. 

Mohammedanism is a mixture of heathen, Jewish and Chris- 
* Das werdende Christentum, or das Christentum im Werden. 



OBJECTIVE RELIGION. 31 

tian doctrines and practices. It has greater force and tenacity 
than Paganism because it involves more truth, especially the 
sublime truth of one omnipotent, omnipresent and all-merciful 
God, the Maker and Ruler of all things. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

DUALISM, POLYTHEISM, PANTHEISM, MONOTHEISM. 

The idea of the Godhead, or a supreme, superhuman and 
supernatural power upon which all creatures depend, underlies 
and controls all religions. It is in one form or other as univer- 
sal as the human race. Hegel says : " The idea of God consti- 
tutes the general basis of a people." It shapes its fundamental 
laws and institutions, and is the bond of society. 

Making this idea the principle of distinction, we have dual- 
istic, polytheistic, pantheistic and monotheistic religions. 

1. Dualism : Zoroastrianism, Manichagism (old and new) and 
nearly all the schools of Gnosticism. Two coeternal principles, 
God and Matter, or Good and Evil in antagonism. Evil is 
eternalized (ab ante), and redemption is made impossible. An- 
nihilation of matter is substituted for redemption. 

2. Polytheism : a plurality of gods (hence idols), without fixed 
limits. The Athenians were not sure whether they had ex- 
hausted the number, and built an altar to " an unknown god." 
Here belong the various forms of idolatry. The most cultivated 
are the mythologies of Greece and Rome. The gods are ficti- 
tious men and women exaggerated and intensified both in their 
virtues and vices. The plurality of gods destroys the absolute- 
ness, therefore, the very essence, of God. 

3. Pantheism or Atheism : Brahmanism and Buddhism. 
Brahmanism connects an ideal pantheism with gross idolatry. 
Buddhism begins apparently in Atheism and ends in nihilism. 
Its summum donum is Nirvana, that is absorption, annihilation, 
the absolute nothing. Yet Nirvana means also the highest 
stage of spiritual liberty and bliss. Atheism may be only a 
negative expression for pantheism or a denial of the personality 
of the Godhead, and not of the Godhead itself. Strictly speak- 
ing, Atheism, as a negation of the supernatural, is incom- 
patible with the idea of religion, for it denies the existence of 
one of its two factors Burnouf's conclusion as to the meaning 



32 THEORETICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

of Nirvana is : " For Buddhist theists, it is the absorption of the 
individual life in God ; for atheists, the absorption of this indi- 
vidual life in the nothing ; but for both it is deliverance from 
all evil, it is supreme affranchisement." Buddhism is pessi- 
mistic, Christianity is optimistic ; so far they are antipodes. 

4. Monotheism: Judaism, Mohammedanism, Christianity. 

But there is considerable difference in their conception of the 
Divine unity. The monotheism of the Old Testament admits 
distinctions in the Divine being and moves towards the triunity 
of the New Testament; the post-biblical or Talmudic, and 
especially the Mohammedan monotheism is abstract, monoto- 
nous, unitarian and antitrinitarian ; while the Christian idea of 
the Divine unity implies fulness of life, an internal intercom- 
munion of Father, Son and Spirit, and an external self -revela- 
tion of the Godhead under these three aspects in His works of 
creation, redemption and sanctification. Hence the doctrine of 
the Trinity is the most comprehensive of Christian dogmas, but 
most offensive to Jews and Moslems, who regard it as a species 
of idolatry. 

CHAPTER XX. 

CIVILIZED, SEMI-CIVILIZED, AND BARBARIAN RELIGIONS. 

Looking at the grade of culture, or want of culture, we may 
divide the religions into civilized, semi-civilized and barbarian. 

1. Religions of civilized and semi-civilized nations still liv- 
ing: Christianity, Judaism, Mohammedanism, Confucianism, 
Brahmanism, Buddhism. These religions have a more or less 
elaborate ritual, and are recorded in sacred books. They have 
also a vast body of literature in poetry and prose. The Chris- 
tian literature is by far the most extensive and important. 

2. Religions of civilized and semi-civilized nations which 
have passed away and live only in history : Zoroastrism, the 
Egyptian, Babylonian, Phoenician, ancient Greek, Roman, and 
Teutonic (Scandinavian) religions. The most important of 
these are the religions of ancient Greece and Rome on account 
of their classical literature and close contact with early Chris- 
tianity and higher education. 

3. Religions of savage and barbarian tribes are found among 
the aborigines in Africa, America and Australasia. The low- 
est form is Fetichism. 



OBJECTIVE RELIGION. 33 

CHAPTER XXI. 

SENSUAL, ASCETIC, AND ETHICAL RELIGIONS. 

In regard to moral character, we may distinguish three 
classes* 

1. Sensual and immoral religions are controlled by passion 
for self-indulgence and the gratification of the natural instincts 
and appetites. Some forms of heathenism ascribe all human 
vices to the gods, and sanction even lewdness as a part of wor- 
ship. Mohammedanism also has a sensual element ; for, while 
it commands total abstinence from intoxicating drinks and is 
so far ethical, it legalizes polygamy on earth and carries it into 
paradise. 

2. Ascetic religions are characterized by penal self -mortifica- 
tions based upon a dualistic view of the antagonism between 
matter and spirit, and aim at a destruction of nature rather 
than its transformation. The Buddhist and Parsee religions 
belong to this class, and several schools of Gnosticism and 
Manichaeism, which influenced the mediaeval sects of the Pauli- 
cians, Bogomiles and Albigenses. 

3. Ethical religions start from the idea of the holiness and 
love of God and aim at the salvation of the whole man, body, 
soul and spirit. Regeneration and sanctification are the leading 
ideas. Here again Christianity and Judaism stand first. The 
moral code of the gospel is the purest that can be conceived, 
and is practically embodied in the perfect fife of Christ. Con- 
fucianism is also an ethical religion, but of a lower order, with 
its face turned to earth rather than to heaven, and enjoining 
simply a secular morality, without poetry and spirituality. 

CHAPTER XXII. 

DIVISION ACCORDING TO PSYCHOLOGICAL FACULTIES. 

If we look to the mental faculty which dominates religion, 
we get a psychological division, which was developed by Hegel 

* This division is an improvement on Schleiermacher's distinction be- 
tween aesthetic and teleological religions. Der Christliche Glaube, § 9 (voL 
i, 53 sq.). 



34 THEORETICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

and his followers. They distinguish, in a rising scale, religions 
of feeling or desire ; religions of imagination (the Indian and 
the Greek) ; a religion of the understanding (the Roman) ; and 
the religion of reason (the Christian). But Christianity acts 
Upon all the intellectual, moral and emotional faculties of man. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

TURANIAN, SEMITIC, AND ARYAN RELIGIONS. 

Max Miiller, one of the foremost writers on this subject, 
applies his principles of comparative philology to the science of 
comparative religion, and suggests a classification corresponding 
to the three great divisions of languages — the Turanian, Aryan, 
and Semitic. He assumes a primitive religion in each before 
their separation into various ramifications. 

1. The Turanian branch : the old religion of China and of 
the cognate Turanian tribes, such as the Mandthus, the Mongo- 
lians, the Tartars, the Finns or Lapps. But of their religion 
we know very little, and that is not enough to justify us in 
speaking of a Turanian religion. 

2. The Semitic (or Shemitic) family : 

(a) The polytheistic religions of the Babylonians, Phoenicians, 
Carthaginians, Moabites, Philistines, and Arabs before Mo- 
hammed. 

(b) The monotheistic creeds of Judaism, Mohammedanism, 
and Christianity . 

3. The Aryan family embraces the Hindoo, Persian, Graeco- 
Roman, and the old Teutonic religions. But these are too 
different to be classed under one head. 

The Semitic family has produced the highest forms of religion 
— the monotheistic, because it was chosen to be the bearer of 
the worship of the only true and living God. " Japheth dwells 
in the tents of Shem." (Gen. 9 : 27.) This old prophecy of Noah 
is literally fulfilled in Europe and America. The West lives on 
the religious ideas of the East. 

But Christianity, while it is Semitic in origin, lives in all 
languages and in all nationalities, and has found a more con- 
genial home among the Latin, Celtic and Germanic races than 
in the land of its birth. 



OBJECTIVE RELIGION. 35 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

DIVISION ACCORDING TO THE RULING IDEAS AND AIMS. 

Confucianism is built upon reverence for parents and supe- 
riors, and is the most conservative religion in its influence upon 
society and the state. Buddhism represents the idea of self- 
mortification and final extinction of passion and desire (Nirvana). 

Ancient Zoroastrism and Manichaeism are ruled by a deep 
sense of an irreconcilable antagonism between light and dark- 
ness, good and evil. Ancient Egypt had a religion of mystery, 
with a strong belief in immortality and resurrection. The re- 
ligion of Greece is a religion of beauty and art. The Roman 
religion was one of policy and conquest. Judaism aims at 
holiness or conformity to God's law. 

Christianity is essentially gospel, or the religion of salvation. 
But it embraces at the same time the virtues of all other reli- 
gions, without their vices and errors, and supplements their de- 
fects. It has a higher morality than Confucianism and Juda- 
ism, and is progressive as well as conservative ; it inspires more 
heroic self-denial than Buddhism, and secures eternal happiness 
instead of extinction ; it feels and solves, by redemption, the 
antagonism of good and evil, which Zoroastrism could not 
solve ; it gives, on the ground of Christ's resurrection, a certain 
hope of immortality and bliss, which Egypt could not give ; it 
produces the highest and purest works of art, excelling the 
masterpieces of Greece and Rome ; it aims at the redemption, 
sanctification and perfection of the whole human race. 

CHAPTER XXV. 

TRIBAL, NATIONAL, AND UNIVERSAL RELIGIONS. 

As regards extent and destination, we may distinguish three 
classes of religion. 

1. Tribal religions. Here belong the lowest forms of worship 
by savage tribes who are not yet organized into national life, 
have no literature or architecture or music. 

2. National or ethnic religions, which are confined to one 
nation or cognate nations : Confucianism in China, Brahman- 



36 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

ism in India, Zoroastrism in Persia, the Assyrian and Babylo- 
nian, the Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Celtic, Teutonic and Slavonic 
religions. Judaism is likewise limited to one nation, but cher- 
ished the Messianic hope of converting all the Gentiles. 

3. Missionary religions which aimed at universal dominion, 
but failed : Buddhism and Mohammedanism. The former 
spread over Thibet, Ceylon, China, Japan and other countries j 
the latter converted Arabs, Turks, Persians, Egyptians, Hindus, 
and Negroes, and was for several centuries a dangerous rival of 
Christianity, aiming at universal dominion. But both have 
been arrested in their progress and have no hold on the Western 
nations in Europe, America and Australasia, and consequently 
no prospects for the future. 

4. The universal religion : Christianity. It is as wide as 
humanity. It started with the claim of universality, and is 
realizing it more and more by its missionary operations in all 
countries and among all the races and nations of the earth. 

CHAPTER XXVI. 

DESIGNATIONS OP ETHNIC RELIGIONS. 

The ethnic religions are designated by the terms idolatry, 
paganism, and heathenism. 

" Idolatry " means image- worship, or worship of false gods.* 
The most common designation in the Scriptures and patristic 
writings. An " idolater " is a worshiper of false gods (1 Cor. 

5 : 10 ; Rev. 22 : 8). 

The term " Paganism," or Peasant Religion,! dates from the 
end of the fourth century, when Christianity was already tri- 
umphantly established in the cities of the Roman empire, and 
idolatry lingered only in remote country places. 

■" Heathenism " J is of similar import : a " heathen " is one 
living on the heaths or moors, and not in a walled town, 
an ignorant backwoodsman. In the English Scriptures the 
" heathen," or " Gentiles," § mean all nations except the Jews, 

* eidioTioTiaTpeia from eldcoTiov, idolum, an image of the Divinity as an object 
of worship. Comp. eldog, that which is seen, form, figure. Gal. 5 : 20 ; 1 
Cor. 10:14. 

t From pagus, village ; paganus, villager, peasant, rustic. 

t From heath, as the German Heidentum from Heide. 

§ ra edvTj, edvinoi, haggojim, gentes, gentiles, in the O. T., and Matt. 4: 15; 

6 : 32 ; Eom. 3 : 29 ; 9 : 24 ; Gal. 2 : 8. 



ORIGIN OF IDOLATRY. 37 

who were " the people " of God, the chosen people of the cove- 
nant* 

We now exempt from the heathen all who worship one God, 
or all Monotheists, i.e., Jews and Mohammedans, as well as 
Christians. The Mohammedans hate and abhor idolatry as 
much as the Jews. 

CHAPTER XXVII. 

THE ORIGIN OF IDOLATRY. 

The different theories on the origin of the heathen theo- 
mythologies may be divided into two classes: those which 
maintain, and those which deny, the reality of the false gods. 

I. The gods are real beings : 

1. Demons, fallen angels nnder the lead of the Devil, the 
father of idolatry. So the Church fathers, on the ground of 
Gen. 6 : 2 5 Ps. 96 : 5 ; 1 Cor. 10 : 20. 

2. Kings, heroes, sages, navigators, discoverers ; in one word, 
great men, who were idealized and idolized after their death. 
So Euhemerus, an Epicurean philosopher of the Alexandrian 
age. Epicurus himself Held that the gods were higher beings, 
but idle and unconcerned about the world, which he thought 
was governed by chance. 

3. Scripture characters perverted: Saturn derived from 
Adam, Vulcan from Tubal-cain, Apollo from Jubal, Venus from 
Naamah (Gen. 4 : 22), Hercules from Samson. — G. J. Voss, a 
Dutch divine (d. 1649). 

4. A theogonic process which has its ultimate ground in 
ante-historic, transcendental relations, or real divine powers 
which successively took possession of the human consciousness. 
This view is pantheistic, and involves God himself in a gradual 
process of development. — Schelling, in his " Introduction to the 
Philosophy of Mythology," assumes an objective and subjective 
evolution of the idea of God from a primitive monotheism 
through polytheism to absolute monotheism. 

IL The gods are unreal and imaginary : 
1. The invention of priests and lawgivers for selfish ends. 
A very low view. 

* 6 laor (for the Hebrew am), often with the addition tov deov, the pecul- 
iar people of God whom he has chosen for himself, Matt. 2:6; Luke 1 : 68 ; 
Heb. 11 : 25, and very often in the Septuagint. 



38 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

2. The innocent creations of poets, especially Homer and 
Hesiod. But the poets made only the theogony (as Herodotus 
says), not the gods themselves. They gave poetic shape and 
form to the popular belief which preceded them and which they 
shared. 

3. Personifications of the powers of nature. — The view of 
Empedocles, Aristotle, and the Stoics. 

4. Deifications of men ; impersonations of human passions, 
virtues and vices reflected from the mind of man. 

5. A poetic cosmogony, astronomy, chronology and phi- 
losophy of nature, invented by philospohers. Dionysos = wine ; 
Phoibos = light, etc. — G. Hermann (1817). 

6. The production of human hope and fear, especially of fear. 
— Hume. 

7. The broken fragments of a primitive and underlying 
monotheism, which arose after the division of nations. — Creuzer 
regards polytheism as a disorganized and scattered monotheism. 

8. A development of man's religious and moral consciousness 
in its departure from the worship of the true God, and a suc- 
cessive deterioration to the grossest creature- worship and corre- 
sponding unnatural immorality. 

This is the true view, suggested by Paul (Rom. 1 : 19-32). He 
gives a fearful picture of the heathen world, which is abun- 
dantly confirmed by the testimony of contemporary writers, as 
Seneca, Tacitus, and Juvenal. But he assumes, at the same time, 
an original knowledge of God from the outward and inward 
manifestation of God, which leaves the heathen without excuse, 
if they do not live up to the light of nature. His view does not 
exclude, on the one hand, the agency of evil spirits, nor, on the 
other, the elements of truth and beauty which remained under 
the rubbish of perversion. For fallen human nature is a strange 
compound of good and evil j it is the battle-ground between God 
and his great adversary. Religion reflects this double nature 
of man in its most intense form. 

CHAPTER XXVIII. 

THE BIBLE VIEW OF THE HEATHEN WORLD. 

In the Old Testament idolatry is represented as a worship of 
demons or evil spirits (Gen. 6:2- Ps. 96 : 5 j comp. 1 Cor, 10 : 



BIBLE VIEW OF HEATHEN WORLD. 39 

20), and as the greatest sin, because it robs God of the honor 
and glory which is dne to him alone, as the only true and living 
God. It was a political as well as a religions offence 5 it was a 
violation of the sacred covenant of Jehovah with his people, and 
therefore rebellion and high treason against his majesty. The 
first and second commandments are directed against idolatry 
in every form. The idolater was devoted to destruction and 
stoned to death (Ex. 22: 20; Deut. 13: 2-10; 17: 2-5). The 
Canaanites were exterminated in punishment of their abomi- 
nable idolatry (Ex. 34 : 15, 16 ; Deut. 12 : 29-31). 

In the Christian Church, after the union of Church and State in 
the fourth century, heresy came to be regarded in the same light 
as idolatry among the Jews, both as a religious and civil crime, 
and was made punishable by death. Theodosius I. introduced the 
penal legislation against idolatry and heresy into the Roman code, 
from which it passed into all the countries of Catholic Europe. 
Under these laws Hus was burned at Constance in 1415, Serve- 
tus at Geneva in 1553, and Giordano Bruno at Rome in 1600. 

But the denunciation of heathen idolatry is not a condem- 
nation of all the heathen. The Old Testament recognizes wor- 
shipers of the true God outside of the Mosaic dispensation. 
Melchisedek and Job are the chief types of these holy outsiders. 
The book of Jonah is a rebuke to Jewish bigotry, and teaches 
the great lesson that the working of the Spirit of God was not 
confined to Israel. The Wise Men from the East, Matt. 2 : 1, 
represent the nobler heathen who, in the darkness of error, are 
longing for the light of truth. 

Our Saviour rebuked the bigotry of the Jews in the parable 
of the good Samaritan, who, though a heretic and schismatic in 
their eyes, put to shame the priest and the Levite by the exer- 
cise of the chief of virtues (Luke 10 : 33). He told them that 
the only grateful leper of the ten whom he healed was a Sa- 
maritan (Luke 17 : 16). He expressed astonishment at the faith 
of the heathen centurion at Capernaum and said : " Verily I say 
unto you, I have not found so great faith, no, not in Israel " 
(Matt. 8 : 10). The Syro-Phcenician woman whose daughter he 
healed, is another instance of that " great faith," which smoul- 
dered beneath the ashes of a false worship (Matt. 15 : 28). 
Christ warned the unbelieving Jews that the men of Nineveh, 
of Tyre and of Sidon shall rise up in the day of judgment 
against them (Matt. 11 : 21-24 ; 12 : 41, 42). He pointed to his 



40 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

" other sheep n outside of the Jewish fold, who shall hear his 
voice (John 10 : 16). 

John teaches, in the prologue to the fourth Gospel, that the 
Divine Logos before his incarnation shone " in the darkness/' 
and that he " lighteth every man that cometh into the world * 
(John 1 : 5, 9, 10). 

According to the teaching of Paul, God has never left him- 
self "without witness" (Acts 14:16,17). He revealed him- 
self even to the heathen j externally, in the works of nature, 
where the reflecting mind may discern " his eternal power and 
divinity, so that they are without excuse" (Rom. 1 : 19-21) ; and 
internally, in their reason and conscience, so that the Gentiles, 
having not the written law of Moses, " are a law unto them- 
selves ; in that they show the work of the law written in their 
hearts, their conscience bearing witness therewith, and their 
thoughts one with another accusing or else excusing them" 
(Rom. 2 : 14, 15). Hence the same apostle, when proclaiming 
to the Athenians the " unknown G-od," to whom they had built 
an altar in testimony of their unsatisfied religious wants, hesi- 
tates not to quote, with approbation, a passage from the heathen 
poet (Aratus), on the indwelling of God in man, and to adduce 
it as proof of the possibility of seeking and finding God (Acts 
17 : 27, 28). 

Peter discovered in Cornelius the marks of prevenient grace, 
and acknowledged that there are in every nation such as " fear 
God and work righteousness" and are "acceptable to him" 
(Acts 10 : 35). He does not mean by this that man can at all 
fulfill the divine law and be saved without Christ (which would 
contradict his own teaching, Acts 4 : 12) j but he does mean that 
there are everywhere Gentiles with honest and earnest longings 
after salvation, who, like Cornelius, will readily receive the gos- 
pel, as soon as it is brought within their reach, and will find in 
it satisfaction and peace. 

It was just among such God-fearing heathen, like Cornelius 
and Lydia, that Christianity made most progress in the Apos- 
tolic age. 



FETICHISM. 41 

CHAPTER XXIX. 

FETICHISM. 

Fetichism* is the lowest form of idolatrous superstition. It 
is found among the savage tribes in all countries, especially 
among the Negroes, Zulus and Hottentots in Africa. It con- 
sists in the worship of any material, dead or animate, object of 
nature (as a stone, a tree, a stream, or a serpent), supposed to 
be bewitched and inhabited by good or evil spirits. It is con- 
nected with cruel practices, such as burning widows, the slaughter 
of servants in honor of their chief, to keep him company in the 
other world. It has little force of resistance, and is easily swept 
away by the approach of Mohammedanism or Christianity. 

Remnants of Fetichism survive even in Christian lands 
(especially among the Negroes in the Southern States), in the 
popular superstitions of witchcraft, sorcery, enchantments, 
f ortune-telling, necromancy, the wearing of amulets and charms 
as a protection against harm, and the worship of dead relics 
and belief in their wonder-working power. 

CHAPTER XXX. 

CONFUCIANISM. 

Confucianism is the state religion of the immense empire of 
China. It has its name from Kong-fu-tse, "the prince of wis- 
dom," who lived five hundred years before the Christian era, a 
king without a kingdom, who yet rules in the hearts of millions 
of men. He was, however, not " a maker," but " a transmitter " 
of an older religion. Some parts of the sacred books which he 
collected and improved are dated back eighteen hundred years 
before his time. 

These sacred books, called the " King," contain the ancient 
history of China from B.C. 2357-627, poems, rites and cere- 
monies, laws and maxims of conduct, and the table-talk of Con- 
fucius and his disciples. They are the text-books in all institu- 
tions of learning, and the substratum of the vast Chinese litera- 

* Fetich, or fetish, is derived from the Portuguese feitico, sorcery, charm ; 
as this is derived from the Latin facticius, artificial, factitious. 



42 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC 

tore. A knowledge of them is necessary for any promotion in 
the competitive examinations. China is governed by an aris- 
tocracy of scholars. 

The Confucian system is based upon filial piety or reverence 
for parents and superiors. It is a worship of ancestors. It 
holds the living in bondage to the dead. Every house has its 
ancestral tablets, before which the members of the family bow 
down with tapers and burning incense, the head acting as priest. 
There are more dead gods in China than living men. The Chi- 
nese worship also heaven and earth, as the father and mother 
of all things. This is an approach to the worship *of a supreme 
deity, but the deity (Ti and Shang Ti) is confounded with the 
material heaven (Thien). Christian missionaries find it difficult 
to translate the words "God" and "sin" into the Chinese lan- 
guage, because the ideas are wanting. 

Confucianism illustrates the beauty and power of the fifth 
commandment, but also the weakness of a morality that is not 
based on religion or the love of God. It teaches the golden 
rule, but only in its negative form, and furnishes no unselfish 
motive for its exercise. It produces a colorless, prosy, mono- 
syllabic, utilitarian, and materialistic morality. It is intensely 
conservative and stationary. It excludes progress as a kind of 
treason. 

For more than two thousand years China kept aloof from the 
rest of the world, and looked down upon all foreigners as out- 
side barbarians j but is now open to Christian missions and 
Western civilization. It is humiliating that Christian England, 
in breaking down the walls of China, forced the curse of the 
opium traffic upon a heathen land ; but the Christian religion is 
innocent of national and political crimes, and God overrules 
even 'the wrath of men for the progress of his kingdom. The 
bad treatment of the Chinese on the Pacific coast, and the cause- 
less war of France against China in 1885, have stirred up resent- 
ment and retarded the progress of the gospel. On the other 
hand, many Chinamen are educated and converted in Europe 
and America for future work in their native land. Christianity 
will assume a peculiar type in that intellectual, frugal, indus- 
trious, and utilitarian race. It will be intellectual and ethical 
rather than emotional and spiritual. The respect for parents 
is a good foundation, although in other respects also a hindrance. 

Besides Confucianism, there are two other heathen religions 



BRAHMANISM. 43 

in China, Buddhism and Taoism. The latter was founded by 
Laotse, a contemporary of Confucius, and has a pantheistic 
character, teaching that the Tao (way) is one and all from which 
all things have proceeded and to which they will return. Taoism 
combines the worship of ancestors with the worship of a multi- 
tude of idols. 

CHAPTER XXXI. 

BRAHMANISM. 

Brahmanism (Brahminism) or Hinduism is the ruling religion 
of East India. It has its name from "Brahm" or "Brahma" 
(neuter), which means worship, prayer, hymn, and also the im- 
personal deity, the ineffable, absolute essence * It arose a 
thousand or fifteen hundred years before Christ. Its sacred 
books are chiefly the Vedas, which issued like a breath from the 
deity, the Laws of Manu, and the two great epics, Mahabharata 
and Ramayana (the former numbering about two hundred and 
twenty thousand lines, the latter about fifty thousand). These 
books contain hymns, prayers, incantations, the laws, customs, 
and morals of the Hindus. Veda means knowledge.! There 
are four Vedas, the Rigveda (which contains the oldest Aryan 
hymns, addressed to Brahm and the lesser gods), the Samaveda 
(the book of penitential chants), the Yarulveda (the book of 
sacrificial rites), and the Atharvaveda (the book of spells and 
incantations). To the Vedas are attached the Aranyakas, and 
especially the Upanishads, — prose-writings which contain com- 
ments on the Vedic hymns, ritualistic precepts, and mystical 
speculations on the problems of the universe. The Vedic books 
are the foundation of the literature of India. They are a 
strange compound of beautiful poetry, wise maxims and pre- 
cepts with gorgeous fancies, absurdities, and impossibilities. 
They are written in Sanskrit. 

Brahmanism is both pantheistic and polytheistic. Brahm is 
the absolute essence, the universal, self-existent soul, and unfolds 

* "Brahma" in the masculine gender means a worshiper, a priest, or 
composer of hymns ; in the later Hindu literature also the personified 
Brahm, or the ineffable essence conceived as God. A " Brahman" or 
"Brahmin" is a member of the sacerdotal caste. 

t From the same Sanskrit root are derived the Greek olda, the Latin vi- 
dere, the German wissen, the English wit. 



44 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

itself in infinite self-manifestations. It is the light in the sun, 
the brilliancy in the fire, the sound in the air, the fragrance in 
the flowers, the life and light in all life and light. Nothing 
really exists except Brahm. All things are Maya or illusion. 
Men are emanations of Brahm, sparks from the central fire, 
separated for a season, and absorbed at last. " Our life," says 
a Brahman proverb, " is as a drop that trembles on the lotus- 
leaf, fleeting and quickly gone." 

But if God is all, then every thing is a part of God. Pan- 
theism is thus consistent with Polytheism. The gods are por- 
tions of Brahm, like men, only higher in degree. There are 
said to be three hundred and thirty millions of gods in the 
Hindu pantheon, chiefly personifications of the forces of nature. 
The Hindus worship sacred cows, monkeys, serpents, stones, 
trees and rivers. The Ganges is the holiest of rivers, which 
washes away all sins and is lined with thousands of temples and 
priests to aid the ablutions of penitent bathers. 

The Hindu Trimurtti, or the three-faced god, often repre- 
sented in sculpture and painting, is a triple impersonation of 
the deity, and expresses the creation, preservation, and destruc- 
tion of the universe. This triad consists of Brahma (a personi- 
fication of Brahm), the Creator ; Vishnu, the Preserver j and Siva, 
the Destroyer. Their functions are interchangeable, so that 
each may take the place of the other, and be " first, second, third 
among the blessed three." 

The gods undergo for the benefit of mankind many avatars 
or incarnations. The chief are the ten avatars of Vishnu, who 
appeared successively as fish, tortoise, boar, and man, and will 
at last appear for the tenth time to destroy all vice and wicked- 
ness. 

Brahmanism teaches the emanation of the world from Brahm, 
the transmigration of the soul, a priestly hierarchy, and a 
severe asceticism, as a means of self-redemption. The Brah- 
mans are the hereditary priests and mediators between god 
and men, and are worshiped as demi-gods. Their occupation 
consists in studying and teaching the Vedas, offering five daily 
sacrifices, acting as physicians, giving alms, and sitting in judg- 
ment. Theoretically, the life of the Brahmans is divided into 
four stages, those of student, householder, anchorite, and ascetic. 
Final perfection is attained by abstraction of the mind from 
external objects, intense meditation, total extinction of sensual 



BUDDHISM. 45 

instincts, complete knowledge of the divine essence, and absorp- 
tion into the universal soul. 

Hinduism has its saints, the Yogi or Fakirs. They are vaga- 
bond hermits, and carry austerity and self-torture to the highest 
degrees of eccentricity : going about naked, or wearing filthy 
rags, with hair uncombed, nails uncut, the body and face 
besmeared with ashes, begging on the road-side, sleeping on 
cow-dung, delighting in filth and obscenity with great show of 
sanctity, hoping to be absorbed at last in Brahm. 

Hindu society is based upon a rigorous system of hereditary 
caste, sanctioned by religion. There are four distinct castes : 
the Brahman s, the Warriors, the Merchants and Farmers, and 
the Sudras or Servants. The first class emanated from the 
mouth of Brahma, the second from his arms, the third from his 
side, the fourth from his feet. This system prevents the lower 
classes from rising, and is the greatest obstacle to the progress 
of Christianity. 

Hinduism is honeycombed by Western ideas and doomed to 
collapse. A remarkable phenomenon produced by this contact 
is the society of Brahmo-Somaj, a theistic form of Brahmanism 
in its movement towards a Unitarian Christianity. Its chief 
advocate, Keshub Chunder Sen, a Brahman, weary of his ances- 
tral faith, said that Jesus is the power which will conquer and 
hold the bright and precious diadem of India. Other Brahmans 
have embraced the evangelical type of Christianity, and their 
number is increasing. 

CHAPTER XXXII. 

BUDDHISM. 

Buddhism arose in India, but was expelled from its native 
land and spread rapidly over a large part of Asia. It has more 
followers than any heathen religion, with the exception, per- 
haps, of Confucianism* That a religion, apparently atheistic 

* Max Miiller, Ehys Davids, and Sir Edwin Arnold estimate the num- 
ber of Buddhists as high as 450,000,000, or even 475,000,000, which would 
equal or exceed the number of Christians. But this is probably a great 
exaggeration, and seems to include many millions of Confucianists. Pro- 
fessor Monier Williams reduces the number of Buddhists to 100,000,000, 
and Dr. A. P. Harper (an American missionary in China, who wrote to me 
on the subject) to 90,000,000. 



46 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

and nihilistic in its issue, should command such a long and 
widespread influence is a mystery, but it is confined to one con- 
tinent. It may be called " the light of Asia/' but it certainly is 
not and never can be " the Light of the world." 

It is divided into two great schools : Southern Buddhism in 
Ceylon, Burmah, and Siam, and Northern Buddhism in Thibet, 
Mongolia, China, and Japan. 

The sacred books of Buddhism are the legendary life of 
Buddha, and collections of didactic poems, rites and ceremonies, 
and maxims of wisdom. They form the basis of the two great 
schools just mentioned. The books of the Southern Buddhists 
are written in the Pah language, and are more reliable and com- 
plete. The Dhammapada, or "Path of Life," is believed to 
contain the utterances of Buddha himself (in four hundred and 
twenty-four verses). The books of the Northern Buddhists are 
written in Sanskrit, and abound in absurd and miraculous 
legends. The date of this literature is uncertain. For centu- 
ries the Buddhist religion was transmitted by oral tradition 
before it was reduced to writing. 

The name of this religion is derived from " Buddha," that is, 
the Sage, the Enlightened (not a personal name, but an official 
title, like " Christ "). It was founded by Gautama, the Buddha, 
also called Sakya-Muni, that is, the Hermit or Sage of Sakya. 
He lived about five hundred years before Christ (between B.C. 
556 and 477, or, according to another conjecture, between B.C. 622 
and 543). 

Gautama was a moral reformer and philanthropist. The 
story of his life bears a striking resemblance to that of Jesus, 
as recorded in the apocryphal Gospels, and is interwoven with 
the wildest legends and incredible marvels. He left a royal 
throne, and devoted himself in poverty and self-denial to the 
service of his fellow-men. He went about doing good, preach- 
ing a new doctrine, rebuking sin, reconciling strife, and exert- 
ing a humanizing influence upon his followers. According to 
the tradition of the Northern Buddhists, he descended of his 
own accord from heaven into his mother's womb, and was with- 
out an earthly father. Angels assisted at his birth, after which 
he immediately walked three steps and in a voice of thunder 
proclaimed his own greatness. When a babe of five months, he 
was left under a tree, where he worked himself into a trance ; 
five wise men who were journeying through the air were miracu- 



BUDDHISM. 47 

lously stopped and came down to worship him. He is believed 
by his followers to have been sinless and perfect, and is wor- 
shiped as a god.* 

Like Socrates and Christ, Gautama wrote nothing, but, unlike 
them, he lived in a mythological mist, which makes it impossi- 
ble to ascertain the real facts. The oldest Buddhist writings 
were not composed till four hundred years after his death. 

Buddhism sprang from Brahmanism. It is Brahmanism 
spiritualized, humanized, and popularized. 

It was a revolt of philosophy against sacerdotalism, of de- 
mocracy against the oppression of caste. It emphasizes intelli- 
gence and moral interests. It uses preaching as a means of 
conversion, and is tolerant. It is, in its spirit, similarly related 
to Brahmanism as Christianity is to Judaism, and as Protest- 
antism is to Romanism, but, in its outward form and ceremonial, 
it resembles Romanism far more than Protestantism. 

Buddhism retains the Hindu pantheon and cosmogony, with 
some modifications ; it assumes an infinite number of worlds, 
an endless series of a?ons, with perpetually recurring periods of 
destruction and renovation ; it teaches the wanderings of souls 
through six orders of beings, so that death is but a birth into a 
new mode of existence, organic or inorganic. Its objects of 
worship are the images and relics of Buddha and the other holy 
men of the legends. 

Its chief aim is the removal of pain and the escape from the 
terrible curse of metempsychosis, which lies like an incubus 
on the Hindu and Buddhist mind. The present life is a proba- 
tion. Those who do not attain the end of probation by a sort 
of moral suicide, must pass the fearful round of transmigration 
and may have to spend geons of pain in infernal regions. This 
accounts for the apparent folly of the Buddhist self -mortifica- 
tion unto final absorption. The alternative is : either Nirvana, 
or endless migration and repetition of earthly misery. 

The precise meaning of Nirvana is a matter of dispute. It 
is usually understood to mean annihilation. But Max Muller 

* Sir Edwin Arnold (in the Preface to his T)\e Light of Asia) calls Gau- 
tama "the highest, gentlest, holiest, and most beneficent personality, 
with one exception, in the History of Thought," who "united the truest 
princely qualities with the intellect of a sage and the passionate devotion 
of a martyr. * * * Forests of flowers are daily laid upon his stainless 
shrines, and countless millions of lips daily repeat the formula, ' I take 
refuge in Buddha ! ' " 



48 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

thinks that Nirvana is something like the Elysian Fields or the 
Mohammedan Paradise.* He also denies the alleged atheism 
of Buddhism. 

The principal Buddhist doctrines are these : 1. Suffering 
exists, and existence is suffering. 2. It is caused by passion or 
desire. 3. Desire may be ended by Nirvana, which means anni- 
hilation, or rather absolute and unceasing apathy. 4. Nirvana 
is attained by mortification of the passions and affections. 

The five moral precepts of Buddha which apply to all men 
resemble the second table of Moses. They are all negative : 
Do not kill ; Do not steal ; Do not commit adultery ; Do not 
he ; Do not become intoxicated. The last is substituted for the 
evil desire. 

One of the most remarkable features in Buddhism is its 
resemblance to Romanism. It has its hermits, monks and 
abbots, vows of celibacy, voluntary poverty and obedience, 
nunneries for women, worship of saints and relics, bells, ton- 
sure, rosary, censer, incense, holy water, purgatory, masses for 
the dead, confession and absolution, pilgrimages, psalmody, 
chanting of prayers in an unknown tongue, almsgiving, pen- 
ances, excessive asceticism, and even a sort of pope in the Dalai 
Lama in Thibet, who is worshiped as an incarnation of the 
Deity. The first Roman missionaries who visited Buddhist 
countries were much struck with this resemblance, and either 
derived Buddhism from Christian sources, or from the devil, 
" the monkey of God," who counterfeited the true religion. But 
both hypotheses are set aside by the pre-Christian origin of those 
institutions and ceremonies. The true explanation is that Budd- 
hism and Romanism have the same root in human nature. 

Buddhism, when it became properly known towards the mid- 
dle of the nineteenth century, had the charm of a new revela- 

* His argument is that Buddha, after having already seen Nirvana, still 
abides on earth, and appears to his disciples after his death. Sir Edwin 
Arnold puts into the mouth of his imaginary Buddhist votary this descrip- 
tion of Nirvana : 

" If any teach Nirvana is to cease, 
Say unto such they lie. 

If any teach Nirvana is to live, 

Say unto such they err ; not knowing this, 

Nor what light shines beyond their broken lamps, 
Nor lifeless, timeless bliss." 



ZOROASTRIANISM. 49 

tion. Its transient popularity is due in part to its affinity with 
Western pessimism, as represented in philosophy by Schopen- 
hauer and Von Hartmann. 

In some respects Buddhism makes of all religions the nearest 
approach to Christianity, both in the life of its founder as com- 
pared with Jesus, and in its moral code as compared with the 
Sermon on the Mount. But the resemblance is more apparent 
than real, more outward than inward. Both start from a pro- 
found sense of sin and guilt, but Buddhism, by teaching an im- 
possible self -redemption through mortifications of the flesh, casts 
a gloom over the whole life ; while Christianity, by revealing a 
personal God of saving love and overruling wisdom, gives 
peace and joy. Buddhism is pessimistic in its start, and ends in 
the inexplicable silence of Nirvana ; Christianity is optimistic, 
and ends in resurrection and life eternal. 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 

ZOROASTRIANISM. 

Zoroastrianism, or Fire-worship, is the ancient Persian relig- 
ion, and traced to Zoroaster (Zarathustra), a priest in the temple 
of the Sun, who lived about B.C. 1300. It was the religion of 
Cyrus, Darius Hystaspis, and Xerxes, and of the Wise Men from 
the East who came to worship the new-born Messiah at 
Bethlehem. It is laid down in the Zend-Avesta, a book of wor- 
ship, a collection of hymns and prayers to Ormazd and to a 
multitude of subordinate divinities. 

It is a system of dualism with a monad behind and, possibly, 
a reconciliation in prospect. Ormazd is the good principle (the 
sun, the light), and Ahriman, the evil principle (darkness, 
winter), who corresponds to the Devil of the Scriptures ; yet 
both were created by Zerana-Akerana. They are in constant 
antagonism, and have hosts of good and bad angels under their 
banners. There is incessant war going on in heaven as well as 
on earth. At last Ormazd sends his prophet (a kind of Mes- 
siah) to convert mankind ; then follows a general resurrection, 
and a separation of the just from the sinners. 

The sum of the moral code, or the supreme command, is : 
Think purely, speak purely, act purely. 

The followers of this religion worship with the face turned 



50 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

towards the sun or the fire upon the altar; hence they are 
called fire- worshipers. 

The old Parsism had considerable influence upon early Chris- 
tianity, through Gnosticism and Manichseism, but with the 
exception of a small remnant in India and Persia, it has been 
swept away by Christianity and Mohammedanism. It is a de- 
funct religion. 

CHAPTER XXXIV. 

THE RELIGION OF ANCIENT EGYPT. 

The religion of the ancient Egyptians may be read to-day in 
innumerable hieroglyphic inscriptions and pictures on temple- 
ruins, tombs, pyramids, obelisks, and other architectural monu- 
ments which are profusely scattered over the valley of the Nile. 

It was a religion of mystery, well symbolized in the hiero- 
glyphics, the mysterious sphinx, and the veil of the temple of 
Sais. It reflects a half -conscious dream-life. 

The Egyptians in the time of Herodotus were " of all men the 
most excessively attentive to the gods." Wilkinson calls them 
" the most pious nation of all antiquity.' 7 It was more easy to 
find a god than a man along the banks of the Nile. Every month 
and every day was governed by a god. The Egyptians were the 
greatest builders, and their architectural masterpieces were tem- 
ples, whose ruins (at Luxor, Karnak, Dendera, Edfu, Aboo- 
Simbel, etc.) still excite the admiration of travellers by their 
colossal proportions. They had a very strong belief in the im- 
mortality and transmigration of the soul, in its final reunion 
with the body, and in a judgment after death. Hence the care 
with which they embalmed the body. The pyramids are royal 
monuments and sepulchres for the preservation of the royal 
mummies. The" Book of the Dead," which was often deposited 
with a mummy, is a funeral liturgy with prayers and directions 
to the departing soul on its lonely journey to Hades, where it is 
to be judged by Osiris and his forty-two assessors. The lotus- 
flower opening with the early sun, and the fabulous Phenix 
rising from its ashes, are characteristic of the land of the 
Pharoahs. " To die is to begin to live." 

The religion of the Egyptians is zoolatry, or worship of the 
divinity in animals. Paul no doubt refers to them when he 
speaks of the worship of " birds, and four-footed beasts, and 



THE RELIGION OF ANCIENT EGYPT. 51 

creeping things " (Rom. 1 : 23). They worshiped and embalmed 
more than half of the animals of their country, especially the 
bull (Apis), the ibis, the crocodile, the cat, the beetle (Scara- 
bseus). Their gods often wear the heads of animals. Ammon- 
Ra, the god of the sun, is represented as a hawk-headed man, 
his forehead encircled with the solar disk. Osiris is represented 
as a mummied figure, with a crocodile's head, wearing on either 
side an ostrich feather and holding in his hands a shepherd's 
crook and a nail. The Sphinxes, also, who keep sleepless watch 
over the vast necropolis, are a monstrous union of man and 
beast, and have always the body of a lion and either the head of 
a man (never of a woman) or of a ram. The former are called 
Andro-Sphinxes, the latter Krio-Sphinxes. 

The gods are divided into three orders. Manetho calls them 
dynasties. The first is known only to priests j the third, the 
circle of Osiris and Isis, is for the people. The gods share all 
the wants, vices and fortunes of mortals. Osiris marries his 
sister Isis, to whom he was wedded before their birth from Seb 
and Nut (earth and heaven) ; he came down from heaven as an 
incarnate god and reigned over Egypt, was murdered and cut 
to pieces by Typhon, his enemy (the devil), and thrown into the 
Nile ; but was made alive again by his wife Isis, who put the 
fragments together; now he lives forever enthroned in the 
judgment hall of the invisible world. Their son, Horus, assum- 
ing the shape of a Hon with a human head, avenged the death 
of Osiris, and slew Typhon. This may be regarded as a con- 
fused foreboding of the incarnation, death, resurrection and ex- 
altation of Christ. But it was a hidden mystery reserved for 
the initiated. 

Osiris, Isis, and Horus are the Egyptian triad, and represent 
the fructifying and fruitful life of nature. 

The river Nile is also an object of worship. What Herodotus 
said nearly five hundred years before the Christian era is as 
true to-day, — " Egypt is the gift of the Nile." Descending from 
a mysterious source far away in the land of the sun, and spread- 
ing fertility east and west, in its long course over the sandy 
plain, it was and is to the Egyptians literally a river of life, 

" Whose waves have cast 
More riches round them, as the current rolled 

Through many climes its solitary flood, 
Than if they surged with gold." 



52 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

CHAPTER XXXV. 

CLASSICAL PAGANISM. 

Greek and Roman Mythology is connected with the highest 
intellectual and aesthetic culture attained and attainable without 
the aid of Christianity. It still lingers among us in the names 
of stars (Jupiter, Venus, Mars), of days (Sunday, Saturday), and 
of months (January, March, June, August, etc.), as well as in the 
epics of Homer and Vergil, the orations of Demosthenes and 
Cicero, the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle. Greece and 
Rome took a prominent part in the providential preparation of 
the world for the reception of Christianity : Greece in the depart- 
ment of language, philosophy, literature and art ; Rome by her 
conquests, polity and laws. They died out in the fourth and 
fifth centuries, but their works of genius continue as inspiring 
aids to Christian culture and learning. 

The Greek and Roman religions agree in the worship of 
deified men and women, who bear the characteristic virtues and 
vices of the two nationalities in an exaggerated form. They 
are essentially man- worship, and so far much higher than the 
animal- worship of Egypt. In Greece and Rome man felt him- 
self to be a man, as distinct from and above the animal. Their 
conception of humanity determines the character of their religion 
and their literature. 

1. The Greek religion is aesthetic, a religion of art and beauty, 
Zeus (Zio, Jov, Sanskrit Dyu), Pallas-Athene (his motherless 
daughter), and Apollo (his son) form the highest divine triad. 
Hermes, Dionysos, Poseidon, Plutos, Demeter, Aphrodite, etc., 
are subordinate divinities. The earth, the sea, and the sky are 
inhabited by invisible beings; every department of nature is 
ruled by a god or goddess. The Athenians, in their supersti- 
tious anxiety" to worship all possible divinities, erected an altar 
to an " unknown god," and made room for Paul to preach to 
them the only true God and his Son Jesus Christ (Acts 17 : 
22 sqq.). 

The Greek myths of Pandora, Tantalus, Titan, Prometheus 
are very significant, and contain reminiscences of a golden age 
of innocence and dreamy f oreshadowings of a future redemption. 
Prometheus was chained to the rock for his rebellion against 



THE SCANDINAVIAN AND TEUTONIC MYTHOLOGY. 53 

Zeus, and after long penal sufferings, was delivered by Hercules, 
the demi-god, the divine man. The Furies (Erinys, Eumeni- 
des) or goddesses of revenge, as described by iEschylos, repre- 
sent the personified evil conscience and the curses pronounced 
upon the guilty criminal j they are daughters of the night, born 
in the moment when the first crime was committed on earth ; 
they carry a dagger and unceasingly pursue and torture the 
guilty sinner ; serpents are twined in their hair, and blood drops 
from their eyes. The poems of Homer, Pindar, iEschylos, and 
Sophocles, the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, the moral 
treatises of Cicero, Seneca, Marcus Aurelius, Epictetos, and Plu- 
tarch, contain many beautiful religious ideas and moral maxims 
which come very near to the teaching of Christ and the Apos- 
tles, and prove the God-ward and Christ- ward tendency of the 
human mind and heart when they follow their purest and high- 
est aspirations. 

2. The Roman Mythology is political and utilitarian, a religion 
of the state and military conquest. Jupiter (Jovis pater), Juno 
(his sister and wife), and Minerva (his daughter) correspond to 
the Greek triad ; Mercury, Mars, Janus, Diana, Venus, etc., to 
the minor divinities. The domestic gods are Lares, Penates, etc. 
Each town, each family, each man had a special god. Yarro 
counted thirty thousand gods. 

The Roman religion was less poetic, but more moral and prac- 
tical than the Greek. Vesta, the immaculate Virgin, protected 
the private and public hearth, and served as a heathen proto- 
type of the Virgin Mary. The gods were guardians of justice, 
property, conjugal fidelity. Cicero saw great wisdom in the 
close union of the Roman religion with the civil government, as 
it united the magistrates and priests in saving the state. The 
ruler of the state was the ruler of religion fpontifex maximusj; 
the priests were officers of the state ; the gods were national, 
and accompanied the legions on their conquering marches. 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 

THE SCANDINAVIAN AND TEUTONIC MYTHOLOGY. 

The religions of the Celtic, Teutonic or Germanic, and 
Slavonic barbarians who emigrated in successive waves from 



54 THEOLOGICAL PROPAEDEUTIC. 

Asia, and settled in central, northern and western Europe, dis- 
appeared with their conversion to Christianity during the Middle 
Ages 5 but they left traces in many popular superstitions, and in 
the names of our week-days, — Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, 
Friday. Caesar gives us the best account of the Celtic Gauls of 
his day, and Tacitus, of the Germans. The Norsemen, now so 
domestic and peaceful, were once the terror of Europe. Bold 
and fearless navigators and pirates, they invaded England, 
France, Southern Italy, Sicily, and threatened Constantinople. 
They founded Normandy, conquered the Anglo-Saxons, and out 
of both sprang the English race. 

The Germanic and Scandinavian mythology and hero-worship 
is contained in the Eddas and Sagas of Iceland. This island 
was discovered by the sea-kings of Norway in the ninth century, 
and in its isolation preserved Teutonic views and customs for 
centuries. 

The elder Edda (which means Great-Grandmother), consists 
of thirty-seven songs and ballads of ancient times, first collected 
and published by Saemund, a Christian priest and bard of 
Iceland, who was born in 1076 and died in 1133. The younger 
Edda is written in prose, and is ascribed to Snorri Sturluson, 
of Iceland, in the first half of the thirteenth century (1179- 
1241). The Eddas furnished the material for the German Nibe- 
lungen Lied, as the pre-Homeric ballad literature of Greece, 
concerning the siege of Troy and the adventures of Ulysses, 
furnished the material for the Iliad and Odyssey. 

The chief Teutonic divinities are Odin, or Wodan, the All- 
father, the creator of gods and men (though himself one of the 
three sons of Bor), with the Earth, his wife; his eldest son 
Thor (Thonar, Donner, Thunder) ; Zio, or Tui (the Indian Dyu, 
the Greek Zeus, the Roman Jupiter) ; Freyr and Freya (Frowa, 
Frau, Mistress) ; Loki, the evil god, the calumniator of the gods, 
the contriver of all frauds and mischief ; Balder, or Baldur, 
the second son of Odin, the fairest, wisest and best among the 
gods, who is beloved by all. The gods are always fighting or 
feasting. They dwell in Valhalla, with the heroes who fell in 
battle, eating the flesh of boars and drinking mead out of curved 
horns. There is a constant conflict of the gods with the dark 
powers. The conflict ends with the downfall of all the gods, 
and a universal conflagration ; but after this a new sun shall 
shine on a new earth, and Balder, the god of peace, shall rule 



THE JEWISH RELIGION. 55 

with the descendants of the gods. An unconscious prophecy 
of Christianity. 

The Teutonic mythology has several points of resemblance 
with Zoroastrianism : Odin corresponds to Ormazd, Loki to 
Ahriman, Baldur to Sraosho. They teach a constant warfare 
between the gods and their good and evil angels, a final con- 
flagration, and a subsequent new creation of peace and joy. 



CHAPTER XXXVII. 

THE JEWISH RELIGION. 

Judaism, as recorded in the Scriptures of the Old Covenant, 
and represented by the Patriarchs, Moses, and the Prophets 
down to John the Baptist, was the true religion before Christ, 
but not perfect, or final. It is the cradle of Christianity ; for 
" salvation comes from the Jews " (John 4 : 22 j Luke 24 : 47 ; 
Rom. 9 : 4, 5). It was like an oasis in the wilderness, sur- 
rounded by various forms of idolatry, but isolated and free 
from foreign admixture. It is, in its prominent features, mono- 
theistic, legalistic, prophetical, and typical, and finds its fulfil- 
ment in Christianity. 

1. Monotheism. Jehovah (Jahveh) is the only true and living 
God, the almighty Maker and Ruler of all things. He claims 
supreme devotion from his creatures. The unity of the God- 
head, in opposition to all forms of idolatry, is the fundamental 
article of the Jewish faith. It is put at the head of the Dec- 
alogue : "I am Jehovah, thy God, thou shalt have no other 
gods before me " (Ex. 20 : 2, 3), and in the form of a dogma : 
" Hear, O Israel : Jehovah our God is one Jehovah " (Deut. 
6 : 4).* This dogmatic declaration of the Divine unity, which 
excludes all polytheism, is made the basis for the highest moral 
precept — supreme love to God — in opposition to all practical 
idolatry (Deut. 6:5): " And thou shalt love Jehovah, thy God, 
with all thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy 

* The Hebrew may also be rendered : " Jehovah our God, Jehovah is 
one," if we connect "one" as predicate with the second " Jehovah." (So 
Oehler, Theol. des A. Test., I. 159.) The Eevised E. V. puts two other ren- 
derings on the margin : " The Lord is our God, the Lord is one," or " The 
Lord is our God, the Lord alone." For Jehovah the critical writers, fol- 
lowing the etymology, now use Jahveh or Yahveh. (Driver spells Jahweh.) 



56 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

might." Hence, our Lord quotes this passage as " the first of 
all commandments " (Mark 12 : 29).* 

2. Judaism is the religion of law, and hence of repentance. 
The law reveals the holy will of God; leads by contrast to 
the knowledge of sin (Rom. 3 : 20) ; excites a longing after 
redemption, and thus serves as a tutor to bring men to Christ 
(Gal. 3 : 24). The seventh chapter of the Romans illustrates 
the discipline of the law, as a school for Christian freedom, by 
the experience of Paul. Judaism alone of all ancient religions 
has a proper conception of the holiness of God and the sinful- 
ness of man. It reveals the infinite distance between God and 
man and the awful guilt of apostasy ; and therefore prepares 
the way for the reconciliation (Rom. 5 : 11 j 2 Cor. 5 : 18, 19). 
The moral disease must be fully known and felt, and be brought 
to a crisis, before it can be healed. To do this, is the mission of 
the moral and ceremonial law with its duties and sacrifices. 

3. Judaism is prophetical and typical. It is a religion of 
Divine promise, and therefore of hope. The promise of redemp- 
tion antedates the law, which came in between the promise and 
the fulfilment as an interimistic dispensation. It prevails in 
the patriarchal period. It goes back to the very beginning of 
history, the protevangelium, as it is called, which was given to 
our first parents, as an anchor of hope, after their expulsion 
from paradise. " The woman's seed," i.e., Christ, which is the 
ultimate meaning, "shall bruise" the serpent's "head," i.e., de- 
stroy the power of the devil (Gen. 3 : 15). The promise was es- 
sentially Messianic, pointing to a divine-human redeemer and 
reconciler of God and man, who was to proceed from Abraham 
and the house of David, and bless all the nations of the earth. 
The Messianic prophecies of the Old Testament, running like a 
golden thread through many centuries, apply to their own time, 
but have an ulterior meaning for the future, and culminate in 
the person of Jesus of Nazareth. He alone is the Christ. 

The Mosaic religion is also a religion of types and shadows 
pointing forward to the substance and reality. Its leaders, 
institutions, sacrifices and ceremonies prefigure the Christ and 
his gospel. The Epistle to the Hebrews sets forth the typical 

* Comp. also Deut. 4 : 35, 39 ; 2 Sam. 7 : 22 ; 22 : 32 ; 1 Kgs. 8 : 60 ; 1 Chr. 
17 : 20 ; Ps. 56 : 10 ; Is. 43 : 10 ; 44 : 6, 8 ; 45 : 22. Confirmed in the N. T., 
Mk. 12 : 29 ; Luke 10 : 27 ; John 17 : 3 ; 1 Cor. 8:4; Gal. 3 : 20 ; 1 Thess. 
1 : 9 ; 1 Tim. 2 : 5. 



MOHAMMEDANISM. 57 

significance of the Old Testament in regard to the eternal priest- 
hood and eternal sacrifice of Christ. 

4. Judaism is a religion of the future. Both the law and 
the promise, and all the types, point beyond themselves : the 
law by awakening a sense of the need of redemption; the 
promise by directing the desire of redemption to a personal 
Redeemer, who will surely come in the fullness of time. 

John the Baptist preaching repentance, pointing his own 
pupils to Jesus as the Messiah, and willing to decrease that 
Christ might increase, is the best as well as the last representa- 
tive of the Old Testament religion. Genuine Judaism lived for 
Christianity and died with the birth of Christianity. The Old 
Testament is the inheritance of the Christian Church, and is 
understood only in the light of the gospel. 

Unbelieving Judaism, after crucifying the Saviour, has be- 
come' antichristian, vainly hoping for the Messiah, who will 
come again indeed, but to judge those who reject his great 
salvation. Yet, after "the fullness of the Gentiles 7 ' has come 
in, "all Israel shall be saved" (Rom. 11:26), and the Jewish 
race is preserved by Providence for that glorious end. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 

MOHAMMEDANISM. 

Mohammedanism (from its founder*), or Islam (from its 
chief virtue, submission to God), is an eclectic religion. It 
combines Jewish, Christian and heathen elements, which are 
held together and animated by an intensely fanatical mono- 
theism in the form of antitrinitarian Unitarianism. 

The Koran is the Bible of the Mohammedans, and contains 
their creed, their code of laws and their liturgy. It claims to 
be inspired by the archangel Gabriel (who performed the func- 
tion of the Holy Spirit in the Scriptures). It consists of 114 
Suras (revelations or chapters), and 6,225 verses ; each Sura be- 
gins with the formula (of Jewish origin) : "In the name of Al- 
lah, the God of mercy, the Merciful." It resembles in form the 

* Mohammed or Mohammad (also Muhammad) means the Praised, the 
Glorified. The more usual spelling "Mahomet" and " Mahometanism " 
is incorrect. 



58 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Psalter, but is far inferior to it in spirit. It is a strange mixt- 
ure of sublime poetry, religious fervor, and wise maxims, with 
bombast, absurdities and sensuality, and abounds in vain repe- 
titions and contradictions. 

1. Mohammedanism maybe called a bastard Judaism, stand- 
ing in the same relation to the religion of the Old Testament as 
Ishmael, the wild son of the desert, stood to Isaac, the legiti- 
mate son of promise. It is Judaism deformed by heathenism, 
or rather heathenism raised up to a Jewish monotheism. It is 
a worship of the one omnipotent, omnipresent God, but with- 
out Messianic hopes and aspirations, and therefore hostile to 
Christianity. Circumcision is retained. Friday is substituted 
for the Sabbath, but not as rigorously observed. The cultus is 
puritanic. All pictures and works of sculpture (except unmean- 
ing arabesque figures) are strictly forbidden, as in the second 
commandment. Idolatry is regarded as the greatest sin. 

2. Islam also borrowed some features from heretical and 
corrupt forms of Christianity, and recognizes Jesus as the 
greatest prophet next to Mohammed, but not as the Son of 
God. 

3. The motto of Islam is : " There is no god but God (Allah),* 
and Mohammed is his prophet." This is the fundamental 
dogma of the Jewish religion (Deut. 6 : 4), with the spurious 
addition of "Mohammed is his prophet." The truth is thus 
turned into a heresy, and monotheism is made antichristian by 
its antagonism to the Trinity, and the divinity of Christ. Allah 
is the god of iron fate. Absolute resignation (Islam) to his 
will is the capital virtue, which is carried to the excess of 
fatalism and apathy. 

4. Morals. Prayer, fasting and alms-giving are enjoined, 
pork and wine forbidden. Polygamy is allowed, with the 
normal restriction to four lawful wives, but with liberty to the 
caliphs of filling their harems to the extent of their wealth and 
desire.f This heathen sensualism destroys home-life and pol- 
lutes even the Mohammedan picture of paradise. The sword 

* Allah, is contracted from the article al, and ilah, and signifies in Arabic 
the true God, the only God. 

t Mohammed himself had eleven wives and several concubines. He 
was surpassed by Brigham Young (d. 1877), the second founder of Mor- 
monism (American Mohammedanism), who had nineteen lawful wives (be- 
sides so-called spiritual wives) and left fifty-four children. One of his 
wives rebelled and exposed him in a book entitled "Number Nineteen." 



CHRISTIANITY. 59 

is the legitimate means for the propagation of Islam, and the 
conquered Christians are held in abject servitude. Apostasy is 
punished by death* 

5. Relation to Islam of Christianity. This has two aspects. 
The Mohammedan religion, viewed in its relation to Eastern 
Christianity which is reduced to a state of slavery, was a curse 
and a divine judgment ; viewed in its relation to heathenism 
which is converted by conquest, it is a blessing and marks a 
great progress. Its mission was to break down idolatry in Asia 
and Africa, and to raise savages to the worship of one God, 
and to some degree of civilization. Like the law of Moses, it 
may prove a schoolmaster, to lead its followers ultimately to a 
purer form of Christianity than has hitherto prevailed in the 
East. But this will not be done till its political power in Turkey 
is broken, which has been kept alive of late only by the jealousy 
of Christian governments. By the sword Islam has conquered 
Constantinople, by the sword (of Russia or other nations) it 
will be driven out ; by the moral power of the gospel it will be 
converted. 

CHAPTER XXXIX. 

CHRISTIANITY. 

Christianity is the perfect religion of God for the whole human 
race. It is the end of all religions, and will itself have no end. 
It is the final revelation of God to men. All further religious 
progress will be a growth of humanity in (but not beyond) 
Christianity, or a more complete apprehension and application 
of the spirit and example of Christ. The kingdom of God on 
earth is intended to embrace all nations and to last forever. 

The characteristic features which distinguish the Christian 
religion from all other religions, and which constitute its perfec- 
tion, are the following : 

1. Christianity is the religion of the incarnation. " The Word 
became flesh." It is the nearest possible approach of God to man 
and the highest uplifting of man to God, exhibited in the char- 

* After the Crimean war in 1855, the death penalty for apostasy was 
nominally abolished, and the International Treaty of Berlin (July, 1878) 
guaranteed religious liberty in Turkey. But the promises of Turkey to 
Christian Europe mean nothing. Christian sects are tolerated and allowed 
to proselyte among themselves, but not among Mohammedans, who are as 
fanatical as ever. This is the amount of Turkish toleration. 



60 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

acter of its founder. For Christ is the God-Man, who unites in 
his person forever the fullness of the Godhead and the fulness 
of manhood, without sin, and who communicates this harmony 
to his followers. The avatars of the Indian, and the theanthro- 
pogenies of the Greek and Roman mythologies, are carnal 
anticipations and foreshadowings of the one historical incarna- 
tion of God in Christ. 

The incarnation of the Eternal Logos is emphasized by the 
Orthodox Greek Church, and made the cardinal doctrine of 
theology. 

2. Christianity is the religion of salvation or redemption from 
sin and death. It is just such a religion as sinners need. It is 
the atonement (in the old sense of at-one-ment) or reconcilia- 
tion (KaraXXayrj) of man with God through Christ, the Medi- 
ator. It fully realizes the idea of all religion, i.e., a re-union or 
reconciliation of man with God. It is not merely a striving 
after, or a preparation for, deliverance from sin, but it is com- 
plete salvation accomplished once for all. Christ is the all- 
sufficient Saviour of mankind, and there is no defect whatever 
in his work. Jesus " came not to call the righteous, but sin- 
ners" (Matt. 9 : 13). Self-righteous Pharisees and proud Stoics 
cannot appreciate the gospel which addresses itself to those who 
feel their need of salvation. Hence there is no use of arguing 
with a proud and self-contented infidel. 

The saving character of Christianity is emphasized by the 
Evangelical Churches. Luther laid chief stress upon gratuitous 
justification by faith, Calvin on eternal election. 

3. Christianity, in its subjective character, is the religion of 
regeneration and sanctification. It not only removes the guilt, 
but breaks also the power of sin. It not only reforms and 
improves the old character, but it creates a new moral character, 
by imparting the life of Christ through the agency of the Holy 
Spirit. The process of regeneration is carried on through sanc- 
tification to perfection and glorification. The perfect Christian 
is at the same time a perfect man. Christianity blends piety 
and morality. It is the harmony of all virtues and graces. It 
is supreme love to God and love to our fellow-men, and thus 
fulfils the whole law of God, in imitation of the perfect example 
of Christ. 

4. Christianity is the most rational of all religions, and is con- 
sistent with the highest culture. Its doctrines and facts are in- 



CHRISTIANITY. 61 

deed above, but not against reason, and the more reason is 
elevated and purified, the nearer it approaches revelation. The 
Christian religion commands the homage of the greatest intel- 
lects, as well as of the humblest child. We may mention the 
names of the Apostle Paul, Origen, Athanasius, Chrysostom, Au- 
gustin, Jerome, Charlemagne, Anselm, Thomas Aquinas, Dante, 
Luther, Calvin, Bacon, Milton, Newton, Kepler, Bossuet, Pascal, 
Fenelon, Leibnitz, Schelling, Schleiermacher, Lotze, among the 
great men and profound thinkers who bowed their knees before 
Christ as their Lord and Saviour. Other religions cannot bear 
the touch of criticism, nor survive an advanced stage of intel- 
lectual culture. 

5. Christianity is the religion of humanity. It is catholic or 
universal, i.e., adapted to the whole human race, while all other 
religions in capacity and extent are ethnic, i.e., limited to one or 
more nations. 

This is abundantly proved by history. Christianity has made 
converts by purely spiritual means, among Jews, Greeks, Ro- 
mans, the Celtic, Germanic, and Slavonic nationalities, Hindus, 
Chinese, Negroes, Indians, and all other races, civilized and bar- 
barian, bond and free. Judaism has made some proselytes 
Mohammedanism has made subjects and slaves by the sword 
Buddhism has spread widely by preaching, but only in Asia 
and all have reached their zenith of strength and influence. 
Christianity retains its peaceful conquests, and is steadily ad- 
vancing. It may be weakened for a time in one country or 
among some nations, but it always advances in, other directions 
and gains more than it loses. It makes day by day converts 
from all religions, while apostasies from Christianity to any 
other religion are exceptional and abnormal occurrences, and 
nearly always traceable to compulsion or selfish motives. When 
educated men forsake Christianity, they generally renounce all 
religion and become infidels. 

6. Christianity is universal not only as to extent, but also in- 
ternally, in that it is suited to all classes, states and conditions 
of man. It brings the same blessings to all, it requires the 
same duties from all. It is compatible with every form of 
government, with every kind of society, with every grade of 
culture, with the largest progress and development, physical, 
intellectual, and moral. It can never be replaced or super- 
seded. 



62 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

7. Christianity is pleromatic. It is the fullness and harmony 
of all the truths which are scattered through the different re- 
ligions, without their corresponding errors and defects. It is 
the central truth which comprehends all other truths. 

8. Christianity is the religion of Christ, who personally em- 
bodies its whole meaning and power. He is the incarnate Son 
of God, the Saviour of the world, the perfect Man without sin, 
the Way, the Truth, and the Life, the same yesterday, to-day, 
and forever. In him the central ideas of our religion are fully 
united and actualized. Christianity is only the manifestation 
of the divine-human life of its Founder and ever present, ever- 
living Head. Beyond him it is impossible to go in virtue and 
piety* 

* See the collection of impartial testimonies to the perfection of Christ's 
character by Rousseau, Napoleon, Goethe, Carlyle, Strauss, Renan, Keim, 
Lecky and others, in *ny book on The Person of Christ (N. Y. 12th ed. 1882). 



PART II. 
SUBJECTIVE RELIGION. 

CHAPTER XL. 

THE RELIGIOUS CONSTITUTION OF MAN. 

Man is constitutionally a supernatural as well as a natural 
being in the sense that he is descended from, and destined for, a 
world lying beyond the limits of time and space. Being made 
in the image of God, he is capable of knowing God, communing 
with him, and enjoying him in endless felicity. He is the 
prophet, priest, and king of nature, and is at the same time above 
nature. Religion is the bond which unites man to God and 
represents his higher, spiritual and eternal relations. Only men 
and angels are capable of religion. Animals have no conception 
of God and no moral sense. 

Religion is the deepest, strongest and most universal interest 
of man. It accompanies him from the cradle to the grave ; it 
belongs to him on the heights of knowledge and happiness, and 
in the depths of ignorance and misery. No one can be indiffer- 
ent to it. Irreligion is only a bad religion ; a man who will not 
worship God, will worship an idol, or himself, or the evil spirit. 
Even demons believe that there is a God, and shudder. Re- 
ligion is either man's crown and glory, or his degradation and 
shame. It emancipates or enslaves ; it blesses or curses, accord- 
ing as it is true or false, pure or corrupt, the original of God or 
the caricature of his great antagonist. It has the power to 
raise man above the angels, or to sink him beneath the demons. 
The best and the worst things are done in the name of religion. 
From its inspirations proceed the purest motives, the noblest 
impulses, the highest thoughts, the brightest hopes, the holiest 
joys, but also the darkest crimes, the bloodiest persecutions, the 
fiercest wars. 

" What should it profit a man if he gain the whole world, and 



64 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

forfeit his life ? Or what should a man give in exchange for 
his life?" (Matt. 16: 26.) Unless a man fulfils his highest 
mission and becomes united to God, his life is worse than a 
failure, and it would be better for him never to have been born. 
Happiness and misery are always in proportiou to the capacities. 
As man can rise infinitely above the animal, so he can also sink 
infinitely below the animal ; he may become the companion of 
God and holy angels in heaven, or of the devil and evil spirits 
in the regions of despair. 

Religion being inseparable from the rational and moral con- 
stitution of man, is found in some form or other in every na- 
tion and tribe. Plutarch, a heathen philosopher of the Platonic 
school, asserts the universal prevalence of religion as far as the 
knowledge of his age extended. " There has never been," he 
says, " a state of Atheists. You may travel over the world and 
you may find cities without walls, without king, without mint, 
without theatre or gymnasium ; but you will never find a city 
without God, without prayer, without oracle, without sacrifice. 
Sooner may a city stand without foundations, than a state with- 
out belief in the gods. This is the bond of all society and the 
pillar of all legislation." * 

The same religious impulse of man in its normal tendency 
will lead him to choose Christianity before all other religions. 
The soul, according to Tertullian, is naturally or constitutionally 
a Christian. Though corrupted by sin and perverted by bad 
training, the soul still longs for the only true God, and if left 
to its own higher and nobler instincts, will embrace Christianity 
as soon as it is presented, because it is the perfect religion and 
alone can give rest and peace. " Tu nos fecisti ad Te" says the 
great Augustin, " et inquietum est cor nostrum, donee requiescat 
in Te. 

CHAPTER XLI. 

RELIGION AND THE MENTAL FACULTIES. — THE PSYCHOLOGY OF 

RELIGION. 

We may divide the faculties or powers of the human soul 
into three. 

1. Cognition, or the theoretical faculty, the intellect, the 

*Adv. Colotem (an Epicurean), eh. xxxi. (Moralia, VI. 255, ed. Tau- 
chnitz). 



THE INTELLECTUAL THEORY. — PIETY AND KNOWLEDGE. 65 

reason. This is receptive, and appropriates, by the internal- 
izing process of learning or mental digestion, the objective 
world by which we are surrounded. 

2. Volition, or the practical faculty, the will. This is pro- 
ductive and works spontaneously from within, forming thoughts 
into resolutions and resolutions into actions, and thus exerting 
an influence upon the world. 

3. Feeling, or the emotional faculty, the sensibility. This is 
not so much an activity of the mind as a state or sensation, 
either of pleasure or pain, which accompanies the actions of the 
intellect and the will. A man does not feel, except he knows or 
wills something which excites emotion. 

These three faculties constitute the trinity in man, who is 
made in the image of God. They reflect the Divine Trinity. 
They are one in essence, but different in function and operation. 
They are not to be considered as separate parts or organs, which 
act independently, like the brain, the heart, the eye, the ear, in 
the body. They are the capacities, manifestations and states of 
the one undivided personality, the Ego, which is wholly present 
and active in all. It is the rational soul itself which is pre- 
dominantly in a state of knowledge, or will, or feeling. 

On this psychological basis we may form three or four different 
theories of religion, according as we identify it with one of the 
three faculties, or assign it a distinct sphere : 
I. The intellectual or rational theory. 

II. The practical or moral theory. 

III. The emotional theory. 

IV. The theory of life, including all the faculties of man in 
their relation to God. 

CHAPTER XLII. 

THE INTELLECTUAL THEORY. — PIETY AND KNOWLEDGE. 

The intellectual or rational theory holds that religion is es- 
sentially knowledge of divine things.* 

* " Modus Deum cognoscendi," usually, however, with the addition u et col- 
endiP Max Muller defines religion, as u the perception of the infinite "; Alfred 
Cave (Introd. to Theol., p. 49) more fully as "the perception or knowledge of 
the supernatural, together with the effects of that perception upon the com- 
plex nature of man." The various schools of ancient and modern Gnosti- 
cism, from Valentin us down to Hegel, put knowledge (-yvaalg) above faith 
(niGTig), and resolve religion at last into philosophy. Abelard, the Ration- 



66 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

This is true, but oue-sided. No religion without knowledge, 
but knowledge is only one element of religion. 

There can be no Christian piety without some knowledge of 
God, of Christ, and the way of salvation. Christ is a prophet 
as well as a king, the truth as well as the way and the life ; he 
is " the light of the world," and in him are " hid all the treasures 
of wisdom and knowledge" (Col. 2:3). Knowledge is a gift of 
grace, and highly prized by John (17 : 3), Paul and Peter. 
Christianity is the mother of the highest culture. 

But knowledge alone is not religion, and religion is more than 
knowledge. Else theological scholars would be the best Chris- 
tians ; men and adults would be more religious than women and 
children ; even the demons, who are by no means deficient in 
knowledge (James 2 : 19), would have some claim to piety. 

Experience teaches a different lesson. Religion usually passes 
from the heart to the head, and not from the head to the heart* 
We must first love divine things before we can properly know 
them. Faith precedes understanding.f Childlike simplicity is 
the beginning and the soul of piety (Matt. 18 : 3). Christ praises 
his heavenly Father that he hid the mysteries of his kingdom 
from the worldly-wise and prudent, and revealed them unto 
babes (Matt. 11 : 25)4 He selected his apostles, not from the 
learned rabbis of Jerusalem, nor the philosophers of Athens, nor 
the statesmen of Rome, but from the illiterate fishermen of 
Galilee. Only one apostle was a scholar, and he exchanged his 

alist among the mediaeval schoolmen, advocated the principle that knowl- 
edge precedes faith (Intellectus prseceditfidem). The champions of orthodoxy 
emphasize the correctness of belief (RRcnTglaubigkeit) rather than belief 
itself (i2ec/^GLAUBiGKEiT), and thus likewise put the essence of religion in 
knowledge. 

* Pascal says : "Les verites divines entrent du cceur dans V esprit, et non pas 
de V esprit dans le coeur, pour humilier cette superbe puissance du raisonnement 
qui pretend devoir etre juge des choses que la volonte choisit, et pour guerir 
cette volonte infirm e, qui s' 'est corrompue par ses sales attachements. * * * Les 
saints disent enparlant des choses divines qtfilfaut les aimer pour les connaitre, 
et qiCon Centre dans la verite que par la charite." 

t " Fides prsecedit intellectum" is St. Augustus's and Anselm's theological 
principle. Sehleiermacher has chosen as the motto of his work Der Christ- 
liche G-laube, the sentence of Anselm : " Neque enim qusero intelligere ut cre- 
dam, sed credo ut intelligam. Nam qui non crediderit, non experietur, et qui 
expertus nonfuerit, non intelliget v (Proslog. I. de fide trin. 2). 

t The finest lines which Schiller ever wrote are : 

" Was kein Ver stand der Verstandigen sieht, 
Das glaubet in Einfalt ein kindlich Gemuth. " 

And next to it is his distich : 

' ' Religion des Ereuzes, nur du verkniipfest in Einem 
Kranze, der Demuth und Eraft doppelte Palme zugleich." 



PIETY AND ORTHODOXY. 67 

rabbinical learning for the simplicity of Christ. A man who 
understands all mysteries and is able to speak with the tongues 
of angels, yet lacks love, is in the eyes of Paul but as " sound- 
ing brass or a clanging cymbal " (1 Cor. 13 : 1). Paul represents 
the religion of the cross as a stumbling-block to the self-righteous 
Jew and as f oolishness to the wise Greek, and lays it down as a 
rule that God " chose the foolish things of the world that he 
might put to shame them that are wise," and that he " chose the 
weak things of the world that he might put to shame the things 
that are strong " (1 Cor. 1 : 19-31). The world is to be converted 
" by the f oolishness of the preaching " (1 Cor. 1 : 21), i.e., not 
by f oolish preaching, but by the preaching of the apparent folly 
of God which turns out to be the greatest wisdom. While 
Paul duly appreciates sound knowledge, he condemns, on the 
other hand, that knowledge "which puffeth up" (1 Cor. 8: 1), 
" the knowledge falsely so called" (1 Tim. 6 : 20), which profiteth 
nothing, but creates strife, dissension and distraction. He warns 
Timothy and Titus earnestly against that very tendency which 
was afterwards more fully developed in the Gnostic systems, and 
which reappears from time to time in the various phases of a 
one-sided intellectualism and rationalism, whether gnostic or 
agnostic. 

CHAPTER XLIII. 

PIETY AND ORTHODOXY. 

A modification of the intellectual theory identifies religion 
with correctness or soundness of belief in divine things, or with 
orthodoxy in opposition to heterodoxy or heresy* 

* The terms, orthodoxy '(bpdoSo^ia, bpdorouia) and heterodoxy, or heresy 
(erepodotjia, a'ipeatg), presuppose a publicly recognized standard of faith or 
creed (icavdv rrjg aAjjdeiag or rfjg TriGTEcog, regula veritatis or fidei). They are 
of patristic origin, and were much used during the Arian controversy. 
Athanasius was called by Epiphanius "the father of orthodoxy" for his 
valiant, persistent, and successful defense of the divinity of Christ and the 
holy Trinity. The nearest Scripture expressions are didaoKaAia vyialvovaa, 
sound teaching, Aoyog vyialvuv, sound word (1 Tim. 1 : 10 ; 6:3), and the verbs 
bpdorouia) rbv Myov rf/g aArjdeiag, to cut straight, to expound soundly, to handle 
aright the Word of truth (2 Tim. 2 : 15), and irepodiSaana'Aeu, to teach oth- 
erwise, to teach a different doctrine (1 Tim. 6 : 3). The term alpecig, which 
is translated heresy in the English Authorized Version, means faction, divis- 
ion, party, sect (1 Cor. 11 : 19 ; Gal. 5 : 20 ; 2 Pet. 2 : 1). Christianity itself 
is called a sect (Acts 24 : 14). Every departure from an established creed 
at first appears heretical, but may turn out to be a new truth, or a progress 
in the knowledge of the old truth. 



68 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

But orthodoxy cannot be the standard of piety because it is 
purely a matter of the head. Orthodoxy consists in theoretical 
assent to a denominational or sectarian creed ; hence there are 
as many orthodoxies as creeds and sects : a Greek orthodoxy, a 
Roman Catholic orthodoxy, an Anglican orthodoxy, a Lutheran 
orthodoxy, a Calvinistic orthodoxy, etc. These doxies are in 
part antagonistic and exclusive. They may all be connected 
with practical piety, or they may not. One may be thoroughly 
acquainted with the creed of his Church and convinced of its 
truth, and yet be entirely destitute of spirituality, or even of 
decent morality. The Church of Ephesus is commended for its 
zeal for pure doctrine, but blamed for having left her first love 
(Rev. 2 : 1-6). The Greek Church calls herself the orthodox 
Church above all others, but is the most stagnant. Pietism in 
Germany and Methodism in England were protests of practical 
piety against dead orthodoxy and formalism. 

A one-sided orthodoxism, whether Greek, Roman, or Protest- 
ant, is generally intolerant, bigoted, uncharitable, and capable 
of the greatest injustice and cruelty, as the history of persecu- 
tions proves. Tolerance is one of the last lessons which the 
selfish human heart learns. The most intolerant kind of intoler- 
ance is the intolerance of infidelity, as the reign of terror in the 
first French Revolution has shown. 

On the other hand, there have been in all ages pious heretics 
and schismatics. There is an unchurchly and separatistic as 
well as a churchly piety. Some of the most pious men have 
been burnt as heretics. Uncharitableness and intolerance is the 
worst heresy. Gottfried Arnold, a pietist who was persecuted 
by the orthodox Lutherans, wrote a learned Church History as 
a history of pious heretics and schismatics. 

Nevertheless, orthodoxy is an important element in a normal 
state of religion. As a rule, there is a harmony between one's 
views and practices, although there are happy and unhappy 
inconsistencies, and many men are better or worse than their 
creed. The apostles lay great stress on soundness of knowledge 
(1 Tim. 1 : 10 ; 6:3; 2 Tim. 1 : 23 ; 4 : 3 ; Tit. 1 : 9 ; 2 : 1), and 
warn against errors. It is the duty of the Church to maintain 
the purity of doctrine, and to make it an essential condition of 
admission to the ministry that the candidate be sound in the 
faith and teach no error. The best kind of orthodoxy is Script- 
uralness, or conformity to the teaching of God's Word ; but in 



THE PRACTICAL THEORY. — PIETY AND MORALITY. 69 

view of the conflicting interpretations of the Bible, subordinate 
standards of orthodoxy called Creeds or Confessions of Faith, 
are necessary; only they should be confined to the essential 
and fundamental articles, and not embarrass the consciences of 
honest men or encourage mental reservations. Unfortunately, 
the Protestant Confessions of the sixteenth and seventeenth 
centuries contain too much metaphysical and polemical theol- 
ogy, which should be left to the school. There is a great differ- 
ence between a system of theology and a creed of the Church. 



CHAPTER XLIV. 

THE PRACTICAL THEORY. — PIETY AND MORALITY. 

According to this theory, religion resides in the will and is 
essentially action, that is, moral action in obedience to the will 
of God as expressed in our conscience and in his revealed law, 
and in imitation of the example of Christ as the pattern * 

All this is true as far as it goes, but becomes false by exclud- 
ing other truths and by identifying piety with morality. There 
is no sound piety without morality, and no perfect morality 
without piety. Yet there are morbid forms of piety which con- 
sist in entire withdrawal from the world, in meditation and 
prayer (Anchoretism, Quietism, Mysticism) j other forms run 
into antinomianism ; even the darkest crimes have been com- 
mitted in the name of religion. 

On the other hand, there are forms of morality which are in- 
different or hostile to religion. Even publicans and harlots are 
more easily converted than self-righteous Pharisees and proud 
Stoics. 

These facts, however abnormal, prove that there is a difference 
between the two. 

The Bible lays great stress on obedience and holiness, and 
knows no happiness without holiness. We must not only hear 

* Various forms of this theory : The religion of Confucius ; Greek and 
Boinan Stoicism ; Jewish and Christian legalism ; Pelagianism ; Deism ; Uni- 
tarianism. Kant's moralism makes religion to consist simply in this, that 
we regard our moral duties as Divine commandments ; morality is the es- 
sence, religion the accident, the outside form. Unitarianism comes nearer 
the truth by making much account of the example of Christ, though only 
under a humanitarian view and overlooking his Divine character and his 
priestly and kingly office. 



70 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

the Word and say " Lord, Lord," but do the will of God in order 
to enter his kingdom (Matt. 7 : 21, 24 ; John 13 : 17 ; James 
1 : 22, 25, 27). We mnst aim to be perfect even as onr Father in 
heaven is perfect (Matt. 5 : 48). Faith without works is dead 
(James 2 : 24). But works without faith are dead also and of 
no value before God (Rom. chs. 3 and 4). Faith precedes good 
works, as the tree is before the fruit, the root before the tree. 

Piety is primarily not moral action, no work of our own, but 
a receptive attitude of the soul to God, a child-like disposition 
and readiness to be acted upon by him. We must first believe 
in God before we can obey his commandments ; we must suffer 
ourselves to be loved by him before we can love him in turn 
and love our fellow-men. We are not to earn our salvation by 
our own efforts, but to accept salvation already and completely 
wrought out for us once for all, and then to show our gratitude 
for it by consecrating ourselves to the service of Christ. The 
gospel religion is not a system of ordinances, commandments 
and duties, but of divine promises, fulfilments and blessings. 
It begins on the Mount of Beatitudes ; it is the story of the 
boundless love of God to sinners in the sacrifice of his Son. 
This love of God works miracles. It alone produces love and 
gratitude in man, which is the heart and soul of all true moral- 
ity. It is the motive which determines the moral character of 
an action, and the highest motive under which man can act is 
love to God. But love to God is a religious affection. 

Consequently religion is distinct from morality, and at the 
same time the source of true morality. Religion quickens the 
moral sense, enlightens it with the knowledge of God, kindles it 
with the love of God and man, directs all our energies to his 
glory and the welfare of the race. 

To cut morality loose from faith in God and to make it inde- 
pendent of religious opinions, is to dry up its fountain, and to 
strangle its noblest aspirations. Morality without religion is 
either an idle abstraction, or a lifeless legality, a selfish virtue, 
which is indeed far better for society than immorality, and 
has its uses for this world, but no value before God * 

* Benjamin Franklin presents, perhaps, the most respectable specimen 
of a great man who aimed at moral perfection without the aid of (revealed) 
religion. He conceived, as he tells us in his Autobiography, "the bold 
and arduous project of arriving at perfection," and gathered for this pur- 
pose from his reading a catalogue of thirteen virtues of which temperance 
was the first, humility the last, with the direction under this head, "Imitate 



THE EMOTIONAL THEORY. — PIETY AND FEELING. 71 

CHAPTER XLV. 

THE EMOTIONAL THEORY. — PIETY AND FEELING. 

Piety is essentially emotional. It is feeling, more particu- 
larly a feeling of absolute dependence on God, as the almighty 
and omnipresent Maker, Preserver, and Ruler of all things.* 

Feeling plays an important part in prayer and praise and all 
other acts of worship. It enters into all the exercises and ex- 
periences of private and public devotion, of repentance and holy 

Jesus and Socrates." As if they were quite independent of each other, he 
practiced these virtues one by one, devoting thirteen days to the course 
and repeating the course four times in a year. What an atomistic, mechan- 
ical conception ! Christian morality, on the contrary, begins with humility, 
with a sense of sin and guilt and entire dependence on God for grace and 
strength. It is characteristic that he at first omitted humility altogether, 
but added it at the suggestion of a Quaker. He found it the severest task 
to conquer his pride. "Disguise it" (he wrote in 1784)," struggle with it, beat 
it down, stifle it, mortify it as much as one pleases, it is still alive, and will 
every now and then peep out and show itself; you will see it, perhaps, 
often in this history ; for, even if I could conceive that I had completely 
overcome it, I should probably be proud of my humility." Franklin found, 
however, in the practice of his virtues that he was "much fuller of faults" 
than he had imagined. Deist as he was, he yet had a respect for the relig- 
ion of the Bible, and was fond of hearing the great revival preacher White- 
field. He wrote to his daughter in 1764 : " Go constantly to church, whoever 
preaches. The act of devotion in the Common Prayer Book is your prin- 
cipal business there, and, if properly attended to, will do more towards 
amending the heart than sermons generally can do. For they were com- 
posed by men of much greater piety and wisdom than our common com- 
posers of sermons can pretend to be ; and therefore I wish you would never 
miss the prayer days ; yet I do not mean you should despise sermons even 
of the preachers you dislike, for the discourse is often much better than 
the man, as sweet and clear waters come through very dirty earth." Auto- 
biography, edition of John Bigelow, Philad. (1868), p.* 213. 

* The emotional theory is held by various schools of mysticism, and has 
been brought into a scientific shape by Schleiermacher, first in his Bis- 
courses on Religion (1799), which were directed against the superficial 
rationalism and moralism of the last century ; then in his work on Dog- 
matic (Der Christliehe G-laube, 1821, third ed., 1835, § 4). He defines religion 
as the feeling of absolute dependence on God (das schlechthinige Abhdngig- 
keitsgefiihl), but asserts at the same time that it influences the intellect and 
the will. By feeling he understands the immediate consciousness (das 
unmittelbare Bewusstsein). In his posthumous Dialectic, he defines feeling 
to be the unity of our being in the alternation between intelligence and 
will (die Einheit unseres Wesens im Wechsel zwisclien Wissen und Wollen). 
To feel absolutely dependent is to feel dependent on God, the absolute 
being, or to be religious. Religion is Gottesbewusstsein, as distinct from 
Weltbewusstsein and Selbstbewusstsein. Schleiermacher's theory has an 
affinity with Calvinism, which rests on the doctrine of the absolute sover- 
eignty of God and the absolute dependence of man. It was advocated by 
Twesten, De Wette, Elwert, Alexander Schweizer, and Hagenbach, but 
opposed by Hegel (who condescended to a cynic witticism about the dog 
and his master), Marheineke and Rosenkranz, who maintained the suprem- 
acy of thinking. Rabiger and Pfleiderer seek to mediate between Schleier- 
macher and Hegel. 



72 THEOLOGICAL PROPAEDEUTIC. 

grief , of joy and peace, of faith and love. Religion must be 
felt as a personal concern of our own. Without feeling it is 
unreal and imaginary. Religion begins with a state of feeling, 
i.e., the felt need of redemption, and ends with a state of feel- 
ing, i.e., perfect blessedness in holy union with God. The Bible 
represents the heart (napdia), which is the seat and centre of 
emotions, as the fountain head from which are the issues of life 
and from which proceed all good and evil thoughts and actions 
(comp. Prov. 4 : 23 ; Matt. 15 : 19). 

Religious feeling is a consciousness of absolute dependence 
on God, but at the same time a feeling of confidence, trust and 
freedom in God. Christians are children as well as servants of 
God, and enjoy all the family privileges. In the Old Covenant 
the sense of dependence and the fear of God prevailed ; in the 
New Covenant the sense of freedom and the love of God pre- 
vail. To serve God in a child-like spirit, with a cheerful mind, 
is true freedom. 

Moreover, the state and degree of religion cannot be measured 
by the state and degree of f eeling. The argument which Schleier- 
macher uses against the intellectual and moral theory, viz., 
that it would make piety depend upon the degree of knowledge 
or morality, holds with the same force against his own theory. 
Neither the depth, nor the liveliness of feeling are sure tests of 
piety. Emotional and excitable people are not always or neces- 
sarily more religious than those of a cooler and calmer disposi- 
tion. The reverse is often the case. A man may have much 
more piety than he is conscious of; yea, the possession of 
Christian graces is often in inverse proportion to the degree of 
consciousness. The greatest saints sometimes pass through a 
gloom of despondency to the very brink of despair and foretaste 
of damnation, while, in fact, they are as near and dear to God as 
in - the opposite state of feeling • they have only lost the sense, 
not the possession, of God's favor, who " behind a frowning 
providence hides a smiling face." 

The theory of disinterested love which should be willing to 
renounce the bliss of heaven and suffer for others the torments 
of hell, rests on a false exegesis of Rom. 9 : 3 (comp. Ex. 32 : 32) 
and a mistaken conception of the relation of love to happiness, 
of virtue to reward (which God has joined together), but it has 
nevertheless been connected with most spiritual and lovely 
forms of piety. (Mad. Guyon, Fenelon.) 



THE LIFE THEORY. 73 

The emotional theory is apt to run ont into extreme subjec- 
tivism, sentimentalism, and doctrinal indifferentism. Nothing 
is more deceptive and changeable than those fleeting children of 
the moment which we call feelings. Religion must have a more 
solid foundation in clear views, strong convictions, and fixed 
determinations which cannot be moved by transient impressions. 

CHAPTER XLYI. 

THE LIFE THEORY. 

We have seen that religion, although involving knowledge, 
action, and feeling, is not commensurate with any of them, but 
broader and more comprehensive than a single faculty of the 
soul separately considered. The force which lies behind the 
faculties as their common ground and centre, we call life. It is 
the human personality as a unit, of which thinking, acting, and 
feeling are but various manifestations. 

Religion in general is the lif e of the human soul brought into 
actual contact with the divine life as its fountain. Christian 
piety in particular may be defined to be a vital union of man 
with God in and through Christ, the God-Man and Saviour ; 
or the life of Christ planted in the soul of man through the 
power of the Holy Spirit and gradually pervading and sanctify- 
ing all the faculties. Christianity alone can bring about such 
a union in a real and permanent way, but all forms of religion 
are at least an effort and striving after it. 

The incarnation, or the Divine Logos in abiding union with 
human nature, is the central fact of objective Christianity. So 
we may say that the measure of the union and harmony of our 
whole being with God in Christ, is also the measure of religion ; 
the closer this union, the purer and stronger is also the piety. 
As far as our intelligence moves in the sphere of divine truth, 
it is a religious intelligence ; as far as our will obeys the divine 
will, it is sanctified will ; and as far as our feeling realizes both 
our dependence on God and our filial freedom in God, or his 
absolute sovereignty as well as his loving fatherhood over us, it 
is religious feeling. 

This view is scriptural. The first definition of piety in the 
Old Testament is given in the words that Enoch " walked with 
God," which means, that he lived in the constant sense of his 



74 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

• 

presence and conformed his thoughts and actions to his will 
(Gen. 5 : 22). The same is said of Noah (6 : 9), and Abraham 
(17 : 1). Righteousness and holiness consist in observing the 
law of God, which is the expression of his will, and commands 
ns to love him with all onr heart, and our neighbor as ourselves 
(Deut. 6:5; Lev. 19 : 18). 

The New Testament presents the same view in a more perfect 
form. Supreme love to God and men is declared by Christ to 
be the very essence, the sum and substance of piety, the fulfil- 
ment of the whole law (Matt. 22 : 37-40 ; Rom. 13 : 9). Chris- 
tianity appeared as a fact, as the manifestation of the Divine 
life in human form. Christ is the prophet, priest, and king of 
humanity, the Way, the Truth, and the Life. So Christian piety 
begins in the individual with a divine fact, with the regenera- 
tion of the whole inner man, and ends with the resurrection of 
the body to life everlasting. It purifies, transforms and sancti- 
fies all the faculties of the soul, it lifts the intellect into the 
sphere of truth, it brings the will into harmony with the will of 
God, and gives peace and joy to the heart. The Christian is a 
follower of Christ ; he is united to him as the member is to the 
head, as the branch is to the vine (John 15 : 1-5). He is " a new 
creature" in Christ, and "all things are become new" (2 Cor. 
5 : 17 ; Gal. 6 : 15). Believers are constantly represented in the 
New Testament as being " in Christ," that is, as having their life 
in Christ, from whom they receive all spiritual strength and 
nourishment. " I five no longer myself," says Paul, " but Christ 
liveth in me " (Gal. 2 : 20). " When Christ, who is our life, shall 
appear, then ye shall also appear with him in glory" (Col. 3:4). 
The vital union of >the believer with Christ is one of the most 
precious doctrines of the Bible. 

What our Saviour says of the kingdom of heaven, that it is 
like unto leaven which a woman took and hid in three measures 
of meal, till the whole was leavened (Matt. 13 : 33), applies to the 
effect of the kingdom upon individual fife as well as upon hu- 
manity at large. It is an all-pervading and all-transforming 
power working invisibly from within upon every department of 
life. A perfect Christian is a perfect man, and the perfect king- 
dom of heaven is perfect humanity. 

All life consists in a double activity, a receptive and spon- 
taneous action, corresponding to the in-breathing and out-breath- 
ing of the vital air in our bodily existence. Both are necessary 



INDIVIDUAL, DENOMINATIONAL, AND CATHOLIC PIETY. 75 

to sustain life. When the process of respiration is stopped, the 
circulation of blood through the lungs is retarded, carbonic acid 
accumulates in the blood, and asphyxia and death are the inev- 
itable consequence. Thus also the religious life has the two- 
fold form of faith and of love ; and if one ceases, the spiritual 
life itself must die out. By faith we assimilate to ourselves the 
divine life ; it is the organ for the supernatural, the spiritual 
hand and mouth, by which we receive Christ himself and all the 
benefits of his work. Faith is not merely an assent of the in- 
tellect or a state of feeling, but also a motion of the will, and 
unites our whole person with the life of Christ. Only in this 
living form can faith be said to justify and to save men. As 
a mere theoretic belief, opinion or even conviction, it may be 
possessed by demons who tremble (James 2 : 10). But this cLU 
vine life which we must first receive by faith, cannot remain shut 
up within us; it will manifest and exert itself and pass over 
into others. This is love, the necessary fruit of faith, or faith 
itself turned outward, as it were, made practical in relation to 
God and to man. Hence the apostle speaks of " faith working 
by love " (mong di' dydnrjg evepyovfisvrj, Gal. 5 : 6), as the sum 
and substance of true Christian piety. Prayer, of course, is 
likewise a necessary exercise of piety ; it represents the emo- 
tional element, as faith represents the theoretical or intellectual, 
and love the practical or moral element. Prayer is an ascension 
of the soul to God, and is followed by his blessing in return. 



CHAPTER XL VII. 

INDIVIDUAL, DENOMINATIONAL, AND CATHOLIC PIETY. 

Religion has various degrees and forms as regards its extent 
or circumference. 

1. Individual or personal piety. Religion is a matter between 
God and the individual conscience. Each man must settle it 
for himself. No man can be pious or moral for another any 
more than he can eat and drink and sleep for another. Every 
Christian must repent, believe and show his faith by a holy life. 
Every one must work out with trembling and fear his own sal- 
vation. 

2. Social piety. Man is a social being, and religion is eminently 



76 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

social. Temporary retirement and seclusion is necessary and 
helpful for the development of character. Every serious man 
wants from time to time to be alone with God. Moses, Elijah, 
John the Baptist, and our Saviour, spent days and nights and 
weeks in solitude, but they came out with new vigor and fresh 
power to do the will of God and to benefit their fellow-men. 
The anchorets fled from the world and the Church, but they car- 
ried the evil heart and the temptations of flesh and blood into 
the desert, and experienced the truth of the sentence: "Woe 
to him who stands alone, for if he falls he has no one to raise 
him up." The object of Christian piety is not to go out of so- 
ciety, but to improve it, and to transform the world into the 
kingdom of God. 

3. Congregational or churchly piety. This is the first form 
of an expansion of personal religion into social religion. It 
identifies itself with a particular congregation, and takes an 
active interest in its devotions and activities. 

4. Denominational piety goes further and extends to a whole 
denomination or confession. Every one should be loyal to his 
denomination and promote its welfare. But denominational 
loyalty often degenerates into bigotry and sectarianism, which 
puts a part above the whole, and is only an extended selfish- 
ness. 

5. Catholic piety is in sympathy with the whole Church of 
Christ in all lands and nations. It springs from a hearty belief 
in " the holy Catholic Church and the communion of saints." 
It is the best cure of selfish individualism and sectarian big- 
otry. It must not be confounded with latitudinarianism and 
indifferentism, which is a negative and hollow pseudo-catholicity. 
True catholicity is positive and inclusive. It rests on a broad 
and comprehensive view of Christianity in all its types, phases, 
and manifestations, and kisses the image of the Saviour in 
every one of his followers. It breathes the spirit of Christ/s 
sacerdotal prayer for the perfect unity of all believers. Its 
motto is : "'I am a Christian, and no stranger to any thing that 
is Christian." It thanks God for every progress of Christ's 
kingdom, for the conversion of every soul, for the building of 
every church and benevolent institution, no matter by what 
denomination or party. "I rejoice," says Paul, "yea, and I 
will rejoice " if " Christ is proclaimed, whether in pretense or 
in truth" (Phil. 1 : 18). 



SECOND SECTION: THEOLOGY. 
CHAPTER XL VIII. 

DEFINITIONS OF THEOLOGY. 

Theology (from Oeoc and Xoyog) or Divtnity (Gottesgelehrtheit) 
means, literally, a discourse concerning God, or the knowledge 
of God. 

It was so nsed by the Greeks with reference to their theog- 
onies, or theories concerning the origin and genealogy of the 
gods. Those who were well informed on the nature and history 
of the gods and taught that knowledge, were called "theolo- 
gians." Sometimes the term was restricted to those who 
described the cosmogony as a theogony, in distinction from the 
" physiologians," who explained the genesis of the world as a 
development of the elements of nature. There were also " semi- 
theologians " or " mixed theologians," who took a middle ground 
and combined the theological with the physiological theory. 
Aristotle gives to the highest branch of philosophy the name 
theology* 

Each religion of some degree of culture has its own theology : 
heathen mythology is based on myths ; rabbinical theology, on 
the Old Testament and the Talmud ; Mohammedan theology, 
on the Koran and its commentators. 

Christian theology is the science of the religion of the Bible 
and the Church. It is, however, variously denned according to 
extent. 

1. Theology in the narrowest sense : The doctrine of the 

* Aristotle divides philosophy into theoretical, practical, and poetical ; 
and theoretical philosophy again, he classes under the heads of Physic, 
Math ema tic, and Theology (Meta/ph., xi. 7 : rpia yevr/ tcov decopyriKuv earl, 
QtvauiT], /uad^juariK^, deoloymrj). The last he identifies with metaphysic or 
" the first philosophy " (wptoTrj tyiAocotyia), which culminates in the doctrine 
of God. He places it above all other sciences. Practical philosophy he 
divided into Ethic, Economic, and Politic. Philo calls Moses a deoAoyoQ. 



78 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Deity of Christ, the Logos (6 Xoyog is 6e6g, John 1 : 1), or also the 
doctrine of the Trinity. 

In this sense, John the Evangelist was called " the theologian " 
or " the Divine " par excellence, on account of the clearness and 
emphasis with which he sets forth the Deity of Christ, especially 
in the Prologue to his Gospel. The English version affixes the 
title to the heading of the Apocalypse, but without manuscript 
authority. Gregory of Nazianzus also was honored with this 
title for his theological orations in vindication of Christ's Di- 
vinity against the Arian heresy. This use of the word is re- 
stricted to the fathers of the Nicene age and has passed away. 

2. In a wider sense : The Doctrine of God (his existence, 
attributes, unity and trinity), in distinction from Christolo gy, 
Pneumatology, Anthropology, Soteriology, Eschatology, and 
other parts of Dogmatic theology. 

This is in strict conformity to the etymology, and is still in 
use. 

3. Didactic Theology or Dogmatic ; that is, a systematic ex- 
position and vindication of all the articles of the Christian faith. 
This is regarded as the principal branch of Systematic Theol- 
ogy, and formerly included also Christian Ethic, or an exposition 
of Christian duty. 

So Augustin, the mediaeval schoolmen, the Reformers and 
older Protestant divines. In this sense Calvin was called " the 
theologian" by Melanchthon (at the Colloquy at Worms in 
1541). It is still the prevailing use among English and Ameri- 
can divines, who entitle their dogmatic works " Theology " or 
" Systematic Theology " (Hill, Dick, Hodge, Strong), or " Dog- 
matic Theology " (Shedd) ; while on the Continent it has given 
way to the more definite terms "Dogmatic" (Qlaubenslehre) and 
"Ethic" (SittenleJire). 

4. In the widest sense : The whole science of the Christian 
religion, as revealed in the Bible, developed in history, and car- 
ried forward in the life of the Church through the functions of 
the gospel ministry. 9 

This definition embraces all departments of sacred learning, 
exegetical, historical, systematic, and practical. This is now the 
usual understanding of the term, when we speak of the " study 
of Theology," "Theological Seminaries," "Theological Libra- 
ries," "Theological Encyclopaedias," etc. German divines use 
it always either in this last and widest, or in the second re- 



NATURAL AND REVEALED THEOLOGY. 79 

stricted, sense ; while the first is antiquated, and the third is 
better expressed by Dogmatic or Dogmatic Theology. 

CHAPTER XLIX. 

NATURAL AND REVEALED THEOLOGY. 

The distinction between Natural and Revealed Religion and 
Theology refers to the source from which they are derived. 
Strictly speaking, it applies only to religion; for theology is 
neither natural nor revealed, but the science of one or the 
other. 

Natural Theology deals with those truths which may be in- 
ferred from the creation, the rational and moral constitution of 
man, and the general course of history, and which are found 
with different degrees of clearness in all the religions of civilized 
nations. These truths are the being, power, wisdom and good- 
ness of God, his providence, the freedom and moral responsibil- 
ity of man, the immortality of the soul, the future reward of 
the good and the punishment of the wicked. Paul expressly 
concedes to the heathen a certain knowledge of God as the 
Creator, and a moral sense of right and wrong* 

But the truths of Natural Religion are only imperfectly known 
outside of Christendom, and associated with errors in all heathen 
religions. They become fully known in the light of the Chris- 
tian revelation. There is a great difference between reason in 
its natural state and reason as enlightened by the Scriptures 
and by Christian education. A well-trained Christian child 
knows more about the truths of natural religion than a heathen 
priest or an infidel philosopher. 

Revealed Theology embraces the supernatural truths of the 
Christian religion which can be known only from the Bible and 
the Church, such as the Trinity, the Divinity of Christ and the 
Holy Spirit, the atonement, the Church and the Sacraments, re- 
generation and sanctification, the general resurrection and life 
everlasting. 

Augustin made a distinction between lumen naturce and lumen 
graticBj and this distinction runs through the whole scholastic 
theology. Raymond de Sabunde, a Spaniard and professor of 

* Rom. 1 : 19-21 ; 2 : 14, 15 ; Acts 14 : 15-17 ; 17 : 24-29. Comp. Ps. 19 : 
1-4; Ps. 104. 



80 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

philosophy and theology at Toulouse, first carried out this dis- 
tinction in his Theologia Naturalis or IAber Creaturarum in 1436. 
He is the father of Natural Theology. He maintains that the 
book of nature and the book of the Bible are both revealed by 
God, and harmonize. Every creature is a certain letter written 
by the finger of God, and out of these letters the universe is 
composed. But it is not sufficient; and hence the second, book 
was given to men to enable them how to read the first. 

English Theists of the seventeenth century, especially the 
Cambridge Platonists (Cudworth, More, Whichcote, Wilkins, 
Stillingfleet, Baxter, Boyle, Samuel Clarke, etc.) cultivated 
Natural Theology in the interest of Revealed Theology against 
the rising skepticism. 

But the Deists (Lord Herbert, Collins, Toland, Woolston, Tin- 
dal, etc.) turned the weapons forged in defense of Christianity, 
against it. They exaggerated the truths of Natural Religion at 
the expense of Revealed Religion, and declared the latter super- 
fluous or denied it altogether. 

The anti-Deistic writers (Butler, Lardner, Paley) resumed the 
defense of the Revealed Religion of the Bible and showed its 
superiority over, and agreement with, Natural Religion. They 
also proved that the same objections which the Deists raised 
against Revealed Religion, may be raised against Natural 
Religion j while on closer examination both will be found to be 
in harmony with the constitution and course of nature. 

The scientific study of nature necessitates in its ultimate 
consequences the belief in a supernatural personality of supreme 
intelligence and goodness, as the only sufficient cause of the 
stupendous result of this universe. 

Dogmatic Theology must embrace all the doctrines of Natural 
and Revealed Religion in systematic order. 



CHAPTER L. 

THEOLOGY AND RELIGION. 

Religion and Theology are related to each other as life and 
knowledge, or as practice and theory. Theology is the scientific 
consciousness of religion. Herein lies their unity and their 
difference. 



THEOLOGY AND RELIGION. 81 

1. Religion is universal; theology is limited to scholars. 
Every human being has a capacity for religion, and ought to be 
religious in order to attain the true aim of life. But only 
ministers and teachers of the Church are called to theological 
scholarship. The theologians are the brains, the eyes, and ears 
in the body of the Church. Beating hearts, working hands and 
ready feet are just as necessary. 

But a popular knowledge of theology expands with Christian 
civilization. There is growing up a theological lay-public, 
larger in the Protestant than in the Greek or Latin churches, 
and largest in Great Britain and in North America, where 
popular theological books are most numerous and have by far 
the widest circulation. The laity are no longer under the con- 
trol of the clergy ; they read and think for themselves, and are 
becoming more and more interested in theological questions as 
far as they touch practical Christian life. 

2. Religion precedes theology. It furnishes all the material 
to work upon. So nature is before natural science, man before 
anthropology and psychology, the earth before geography, his- 
tory before historiography. Pistis is the mother of Gnosis. 
" Fides prcecedit intellectum." 

3. Religion produces theology. The science of theology is 
not born from the barren womb of skepticism or indifferentism, 
but from faith in God and love of truth. " Credo ut intelligam" 
(Anselm). The Christian divine is as sure of his faith as he is 
of his reason, yea, of his very existence. 

Des Cartes, in opposition to the dogmatic assumptions, of 
scholasticism, starts with the purely negative principle : u De 
omnibus dubitandum est" But this applies only to historical 
criticism, which can take nothing for granted on mere authority, 
and must proceed without prejudice and prepossession. The- 
ology rests on the best authority, on divine revelation. Phi- 
losophy has its origin in love of the truth and in an honest de- 
sire to know it. Heresy and infidelity no doubt stimulate the 
investigation of truth and are, negatively, of great benefit to it, 
but the propelling force of theology and philosophy is intrinsic 
and inherent. In the full assurance of faith and its harmony 
with reason, theology may boldly venture on speculation and 
the closest critical examination. Even Des Cartes must admit 
a positive starting-point for philosophy, viz., the certainty of self- 
conscious existence : " Cogito, ergo sum." It is God's exclusive 



82 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

privilege to create the world ex nihilo; but as for man, the 
maxim holds good: "Ex nihilo nihil fit." 

4. Theology reacts favorably or unfavorably on the state of 
religion. The fruit contains new seed. The power of ideas is 
irresistible. Ideas rule the intellectual and spiritual world* 
They pass from the university to the pulpit, from the pulpit to 
the congregation, from the congregation to the family. The 
theology of the Reformation shook the Church and the world, 
and opened new avenues of thought and action. On the other 
hand, a bad theology has the opposite effect. Rationalism and 
infidelity have wrought fearful devastation in the Churches on 
the Continent of Europe, though only temporarily. 

Religion and theology are therefore inseparably connected, 
they decay or flourish together. 

CHAPTER LI. 

THEOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY. 

Theology is related to Philosophy as revelation is to reason, 
as the order of grace is to the order of nature. 

Philosophy is the fundamental science, the science of the 
general laws of all existence, the science of sciences. It pene- 
trates from the surface to the depth beneath, from the outward 
phenomena to the underlying laws, from the particulars to the 
general. Every branch of knowledge has its philosophy or may 
be treated philosophically, as well as empirically and historically. 

1. Theology is limited to the sphere of religion or the relation 
of man to God ; its connection with other departments of knowl- 
edge is indirect. Philosophy has a much more extensive range 
of subjects, and embraces G-od, man, and nature j it is as wide 
as the spiritual and material universe. 

2. On the other hand, theology is more comprehensive in the 
sphere of religion, and covers all the details of exegesis, Church 
history and the practical work of the ministry. Philosophy is 
confined to the speculative or metaphysical part of religion, to 
dogmatic and moral theology. There is, however, room also for 
a philosophy of church history, which would deal with the laws 

* The German proverb, Geld regiert die Welt, applies only to the mate- 
rial world. The " almighty dollar," however useful as a means to an end, 
can not produce a single idea. 



THEOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY. 83 

of development and the leading characteristics of the several 
epochs and types of Christianity. Such a work is greatly needed 
and worthy of a life's study. 

3. Theology starts from revelation and the consciousness of 
God (Gottesbeivusstsein) ; philosophy starts from reason and self- 
consciousness (Selbstbewusstsein). The theologian begins with 
faith and has for his motto : " Credo, ergo sum; Fides prmcedit 
intellectum. " The philosopher begins with thought and says : 
" Cogito, ergo sum ; Intellectus prcecedit fidem." The former is 
guided by the revealed word of God, the latter by the laws of 
thought. Theological truth is measured by agreement with the 
Scriptures, philosophical truth, by logical consistency and con- 
clusiveness. Sound theology must be biblical, sound philosophy 
must be rational. The theologian tries to comprehend and ex- 
plain the divinely revealed order of grace and the way to salva- 
tion ; the philosopher reconstructs the universe a priori, out of 
his own mind. 

4. Theology is in possession of the truth • philosophy is in 
quest of truth.* Theology has an infallible guide in the sure 
word of prophecy concerning the supernatural world and the 
order of salvation. Theology is the science of revelation, 
philosophy is the science of reason. Theology knows that 
there is a God, and that man is immortal for weal or woe. 
Philosophy teaches that on principles of sound reasoning there 
may be a God and there ought to be a God, that man may be 
and probably is immortal ; but it cannot give certainty. The- 
ology knows the poison of sin and its antidote in salvation by 
Christ ; philosophy must admit the terrible fact of moral dis- 
order and misery in the world, but it cannot explain and remedy 
it. Philosophy may, however, show the possibility and the 
necessity of a divine revelation and aid in comprehending it. 

5. Philosophy is purely speculative, and takes for granted the 
knowledge of facts and details. Theology is to a large extent 
positive and empirical, dealing with given facts, and minute 
investigations, as in Exegesis and Church History ; but it is also 
speculative in Dogmatic and Ethic, where it deals with doctrines 
and principles, and endeavors not only to prove them from the 
Bible and the confessions of faith, but also to vindicate them 
before the tribunal of reason. 

Systematic theology and philosophy go over the same ground 
* Picus a Mirandola : "Philosophic/, qucerit, religio possidet veritatem." 



84 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

and have the same end in view. To Christian Dogmatic corre- 
sponds Philosophy of Religion ; to Christian Ethic corresponds 
Moral Philosophy or Philosophical Ethic. The doctrinal part 
of Church History, since the Christian era, runs parallel with 
the History of Philosophy. They cannot be indifferent to each 
other, but are either friendly or hostile. Higher philosophy 
must notice the doctrines of revelation, e.g., the trinity, incarna- 
tion and atonement ; while theology on its part must pay atten- 
tion to the tenets of natural religion, as the existence and at- 
tributes of God, the freedom of the will, the immortality of the 
soul. 

6. There is no fundamental (principial) or necessary antago- 
nism between philosophy and theology, as little as there is be- 
tween reason and revelation, knowledge and faith, nature and 
grace. They proceed from the same God of truth, and will 
ultimately meet in perfect harmony. They pursue independent 
parallel lines of investigation, and may agree or disagree. If 
they disagree, the fault lies not in philosophy or theology as 
such, but in the imperfection of the philosopher or theologian. 
There have always been Christian philosophers as well as phil- 
osophical (speculative) theologians. The same is true of the 
relation of natural sciences to religion. The Bible teaches 
religion, but does not profess to teach geography, geology, 
astronomy, biology, chronology, or any other science 5 and 
hence does not contradict them or forbid their freest and 
fullest development. Science and religion represent different 
interests, and must be pursued independently. 

Examples of Christian philosophers and scientists, and spec- 
ulative theologians : Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, 
Origen, Athanasius, Gregory of Nyssa, John of Damascus, 
Augustin, Anselm, Thomas Aquinas, Calvin, Jonathan Ed- 
wards, Jacob Boehme, Bacon, Newton, Kepler, Leibnitz, Schell- 
ing, Jacobi, Schleiermacher, Ulrici, Lotze, Coleridge, Sir William 
Hamilton, Rothe, Dorner. " Pliilosopliia obiter libata abducit a 
Deo, penitus hausta reducit ad eundem" (Bacon). 

7. The normal relation of theology and philosophy in the 
present order of things is similar to that between Church and 
State in America, i.e., a peaceful and friendly independence. A 
state of subserviency of the one to the other retards or obstructs 
the normal progress of both. Every age has its own ruling 
system of philosophy, which reflects the spirit of the age in its 



THEOLOGY AND THE GOSPEL MINISTRY. 85 

highest scientific self -consciousness ; but theology should rise 
above the ever-changing currents of human speculation and 
derive its inspiration from the eternal Word of God. "Amicus 
Plato, amicus Aristoteles, sed magis arnica Veritas." " Thy word 
is truth" (John 17: 17). 

8. Use of the study of philosophy to the theologian : 

(a) Material use. It enables him to measure the extent of 
the speculative capacity of the human mind in grasping the 
truth, and to compare the various and varying systems of phi- 
losophy with the system of revelation. 

(b) Formal use. It is the best discipline of the mind and 
indispensable for a successful cultivation of systematic theology. 
Philosophy can remove the obstacles to faith, refute the objec- 
tions, and prove that the doctrines of revelation, although above ■ 
reason, are not contrary to reason. A false philosophy may 
make proud unbelievers, true philosophy makes humble and 
reverent believers. The end of philosophy is, to show the need 
of revelation* 

CHAPTER LII. 

THEOLOGY AND THE GOSPEL MTNISTRY. 

1. Theology is necessary for the well-being of the Church and 
for an efficient ministry of the gospel. 

(a) The minister is first of all a preacher of the Word of God 
( Verbi clivini minister), and an educator of the people in the way 
of Life. He should be thoroughly furnished for the efficient and 
faithful discharge of this sublime duty. He must be familiar 
with the Holy Scriptures, and be able clearly and forcibly to 
expound and apply them to the wants of the congregation in 
the present age. Paul requires bishops and presbyters to be 
"apt to teach. 1 ' But no man can teach who has not been 
taught himself, and knows much more than his pupils. 

(b) The minister must lead the devotions, administer the 
sacraments, and conduct the whole public worship. This re- 
quires fervor, dignity, and solemnity, and much careful prepara- 

* " Studire nur und raste nie, 

Du bringsfs nicht iveit mit deinen Schlussen. 
Das ist das Ende der Philosophic : 
Zu icissen, dass wir glauben miissen." (Em. Geibel.) 



86 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

tion. He is a priest, not in a literal, but spiritual sense * All 
Christian believers are priests, having a direct access to the 
throne of grace, and are directed to offer spiritual sacrifices of 
prayer and praise ; but the minister takes the lead. 

(c) As a pastor or shepherd (noifirjv), the minister has to lead 
the flock of Christ, to feed the sheep and lambs, to be the spirit- 
ual counselor and comforter of immortal souls in their moral 
relations, trials and temptations, and to conduct them from the 
cradle to the threshold of eternity ; all of which requires know- 
ledge of the human heart, wisdom, discretion, experience and a 
high order of moral character. 

2. Theology is especially important for the Protestant minis- 
ter, and in the present age. 

The Greek or Roman priest has less need of a thorough 
education. He is seldom required to preach; he is chiefly a 
functionary; he depends upon the objective teaching of the 
Church and the prescribed liturgical forms ; his principal duty 
is to read mass ; his throne is the altar and the confessional. 

The Protestant minister must expound and enforce the 
Scriptures in every regular service; his throne is the pulpit. 
He stands or falls with his personal character and merit. He 
cannot shelter himself behind the dignity of his office. He 
will lose his authority over the thinking classes unless he keeps 
pace with the progress of knowledge and practices what he 
preaches. 

The editor is a powerful rival of the preacher ; the daily press 
is a daily pulpit, with the largest audience. Our age is distin- 
guished for high scientific culture, the diffusion of knowledge, 
the spirit of inquiry, the pride of reason. 

Yet, after all, the minister must depend on spiritual and 
moral rather than intellectual power ; and in this chief depart- 
ment he need fear no rivalry. The ministry will be indispensa- 
ble as long as men are religious and have immortal souls to 
save. It administers counsel, comfort, and blessing at every 
important stage of life from the cradle to the grave, in seasons 
of prosperity and adversity, and can less be spared for the well- 

* The English word "priest" and the German "Priester " are contracted 
from "presbyter;" but in the New Testament irpecfivTepoc; is equivalent 
to E7riGK07rog, and means ruler and teacher, not lepevg or sacerdos. The 
literal sacerdotal idea, with the corresponding ideas of altar and sacri- 
fice, was introduced into the Christian ministry by Cyprian in the third 
century. 



HINTS FOR THE PROFITABLE STUDY OF THEOLOGY. 87 

being of society and the happiness of the home than any other 
profession or occupation. 

3. The Church has always demanded a suitable preparation 
for the ministry and provided the means for it. 

Examples from the Bible : Moses learned in all the wisdom 
of Egypt; the training of the Prophets; the school of John 
the Baptist; the personal instruction of Christ; the pente- 
costal outfit ; Paul's hellenistic and rabbinical training. From 
the history of the Church : the catechetical schools and theo- 
logical seminaries of Alexandria, Antioch, etc. ; convents ; cathe- 
dral schools ; universities ; theological colleges, and seminaries. 

4. Theological learning is not sufficient to qualify a man for 
the gospel ministry. The most learned divine may be a very 
poor preacher and pastor ; while, on the other hand, moral and 
spiritual qualities may to a considerable extent make up for seri- 
ous defects of education. Familiarity with the Bible, knowledge 
of human nature, sound common sense, and fervent piety are 
more important for a successful ministry than any amount of 
scholastic learning. Moreover, God is not bound to any rules. 
He can call prophets from the plough or the sheepfold or the 
net as well as from colleges and universities. 

5. A minister must first of all be called by the Holy Spirit 
and prompted by love to God and to immortal souls. He must 
be a man of living faith and fervent zeal. He must keep in 
view the salvation of the world as the great practical end of the 
ministerial office. It is the harmonious development of intel- 
lectual and spiritual training that constitutes the true theolo- 
gian or divine. He must be taught of God as well as of men, 
and therefore able to teach others the way of life by word and 
example. 

CHAPTER LIII. 

HINTS FOR THE PROFITABLE STUDY OF THEOLOGY. 

1. Study Devoutly and Prayerfully. 

In the old trio of qualifications which constitute the theolo- 
gian, oratio is put first, and is followed by meditatio and tempta- 
tio. To Luther is ascribed the saying: " Bene orasse est bene 
studuisse." He practiced it, like all great and good preachers 



88 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

before and after Mm. Reverence is essential to all piety. 
Theology is a sacred science. " Sancta sancte tractanda." On 
its portal stands the inscription : " Procul abeste profani." It is 
the science of God, and God is an object of adoration and 
praise, rather than of curious speculation. By thinking we seek 
God ; by prayer we find him. Study makes a scholar ; prayer 
makes a saint. Goodness is better than greatness ; godliness 
better than scholarship. We admire learning, we respect and 
love virtue. Aim to combine both. 

Refresh yourselves from the fountain of life before you open 
your books. Put the spiritual before the intellectual, the devo- 
tional before the critical. The secret communion with God is 
the best consecration of your studies and makes them fruitful 
for the welfare of your fellow-men and the building up of the 
Redeemer's kingdom. 

2. Study Enthusiastically. 

Nothing great and good can be done without enthusiasm. It 
inspires the mind, it stirs the heart, it stimulates the will, it 
gives itself wholly to the pursuit of the object of its choice. 
One of the finest gifts of youth is that unquenchable ardor of 
the soul, that burning thirst for knowledge, that energy and 
courage, which shrinks from no difficulty. A double-minded 
and half-hearted man never accomplishes much in this world. 
He is " unstable in all his ways." 

Throw, then, your whole mind into your studies ; be totus in 
illis. Be all ear while you hear ; be all eye while you read ; be 
all thought while you think. In this way you will accomplish 
more in a day than a slow and indifferent student can in a week. 

3. Study Judiciously. 

Genuine enthusiasm is not inconsistent with moderation and 
judgment. Mrjdev ayav. u We quid nimisP Moderation in all 
things. The best thing may be undone by being overdone. 
Many a scholar, in this stimulating climate of ours, studies him- 
self away to an untimely grave by a neglect of needed rest and 
healthy exercise. 

4. "Sana Mens in Corpore Sano." 

11 Cleanliness is next to godliness." Keep your body clean, 



HINTS FOR THE PROFITABLE STUDY OF THEOLOGY. 89 

healthy, and vigorous, that it may be an efficient organ of the 
immortal soul. 

Give a portion of each day to innocent recreation in the open 
air, either alone with your God, or in the company of congenial 
friends, which of itself is one of the best recreations. 

The ascetic contempt and neglect of the body springs from 
the radical error that matter is essentially evil, and that the 
body is the prison of the soul. This error crept into the 
ancient Church through Gnosticism ; and, though theoretically 
repudiated as a heresy, it perpetuated itself practically in mo- 
nasticism. There were hermits in Egypt who thought that god- 
liness thrives best in filth, and who never washed their face nor 
combed their hair, except on holy Easter. 

Christianity begins with the washing of regeneration and 
ends with the resurrection of the body. In the life of our Sav- 
iour you look in vain for any trace of ascetic austerity and self- 
mortification. Every thing in him was healthy, serene, hopeful. 
He associated freely with men and women, and loved little 
children. He rejoiced with the rejoicing. He attended the 
wedding feast and turned water into wine. He admired the 
birds of the air and the flowers of the field, and, in his incom- 
parable parables, drew sublime lessons from the book of Nature. 

5. Study Systematically. 

" Time is money," says the proverb. Rather, it is more than 
money; for money may be replaced, but time cannot; once 
lost, it is lost forever. Agassiz declined a tempting offer to 
deliver a course of lectures at a thousand dollars a lecture, be- 
cause "he could not afford time to make money." A noble 
sentiment, well worth remembering in this age of the degrading 
worship of Mammon. Economize your precious time so as to 
turn it to the best account. This can only be done by order 
and system. 

Be regular in your habits, punctual in your appointments. 
Sleep no longer than is necessary for health. Make a wise dis- 
tribution of the day between study and recreation and between 
the different kinds of study. Get up early in the morning * and 

* The German proverb says : " Morgenstunde hat Gold im Munde." The 
English proverb is still better : 

" Early to bed and early to rise 
Makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise." 



90 THEOLOGICAL PROPAEDEUTIC. 

keep wide awake during the day. The last is the most impor- 
tant. 

Do not put off till to-morrow what you can do to-day. 
" Strike the iron while it is hot." Answer a letter at once j if 
you wait a week, you have to read it over again and lose that 
much time. Give your first hour to prayer and devotional 
reading. Then take up your regular studies, dividing and ad- 
justing the time according to your lectures and the particular 
stage of your course. Postpone the lighter studies and miscel- 
laneous reading to the afternoon or evening. We must acquaint 
ourselves with the march of events and the state of public opin- 
ion on the great questions of the day if we would exert a whole- 
some influence on the living generation. Yet true scholarship 
is not born of ephemeral productions, which pass away with the 
fleeting moment ; it comes from the thorough mastery of works 
of profound thought and earnest research, which outlive the 
author and his age. 

6. Study Faithfully. 

Enter upon your studies in the fulness of faith ; faith in the 
existence and the supreme value of truth. The knowledge of 
truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth, is the object 
of study. 

Skepticism may stimulate inquiry, explode prejudices, dispel 
superstition, and provoke abler and stronger defences of the 
truth. But the mission of doubt is negative. It can destroy, 
but it cannot build up. Faith is the fruitful mother of know- 
ledge, the pioneer of inventions, discoveries, and all great enter- 
prises. Faith can remove mountains of difficulties, and is sure 
to succeed at last. Go forth, then, in the panoply of faith, and 
boldly meet the mocking Goliath of unbelief. A little stone 
from the brook can slay him, if you hit his brain. 

7. On Beading. 

Study the best books of the best authors, and the Bible most 
of all. " Non multa, sed wiultum." 

Digest as you read, and impress the contents indelibly on 
your mind. Use the pen and note down or mark on the mar- 
gin what is most important and worth remembering. u Leg ere 



THE STUDENT'S LIBRARY. 91 

sine cdlamo est dormweP Lord Bacon says : " Reading makes 
a full man, conference a ready man, writing an exact man." 

So exercise yonr memory as to become in a measure independ- 
ent of books. Make your memory a library, which you can use 
anywhere and at any time. It is of inestimable value to have 
in your brain a treasury of Bible passages, hymns, and a peren- 
nial flower garden of classical poetry. 



CHAPTER LIV. 

THE STUDENT'S LIBRARY. 

A library is the student's working tool and armory. Books 
are his best friends, always on hand to give instruction, enter- 
tainment, and encouragement. A book contains the author's 
best thoughts in his best words. Some books are better than 
their authors; but some authors are greater and better than 
their books. Some exercise most influence through what they 
do or write ; others by what they are, or by their personal mag- 
netism. Milton says : "A good book is the precious life-blood 
of a master-spirit embalmed and treasured up on purpose to a 
life beyond life." 

Books that live cannot be manufactured to order ; they grow 
spontaneously like trees. But most books fall still-born from 
the press. 

Great care should be taken by the student in selecting his 
library. It can only be done gradually as he progresses. 

The following are some hints. 

1. The value of the library depends on its quality rather than 
its quantity. A selection is better than a collection. A few 
classics outweigh hundreds of indifferent works. Books, like 
friends, should be few and well chosen. 

2. Get the best books of the best authors in the best editions. 

3. Old editions of good books when superseded by the au- 
thor's corrections and improvements, become bad, being the 
enemies of the better. This applies especially to exegetical and 
historical works in an age of rapid progress in discovery and 
research like ours. 

4. The dearest books are the cheapest when they are the most 
useful. (The same is true of bindings.) 



92 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

5. Those books are the best which instruct and stimulate 
most and last longest. 

6. Miscellaneous and ephemeral books only burden the 
shelves ; bad books are a nuisance. 

7. A theological library should contain : 

(a) The Bible in the original Hebrew and Greek as well as in 
English (Authorized and Revised Vers.), with grammars, dic- 
tionaries, concordances, and other exegetical helps. 

(b) Standard works on Church history, Doctrine history, Dog- 
matic, Ethic, homiletic and pastoral Theology. 

(c) A Bible Dictionary and a general theological and religious 
Encyclopaedia for convenient reference. 

(d) Ancient and modern classics, especially poets, for the cul- 
tivation of taste and style and the feeding of the flame of en- 
thusiasm for the ideal, the beautiful, and the pure. 



CHAPTER LV 

DIVISION OF THEOLOGY. 

We divide Theology into four divisions : Exegetical, His- 
torical, Systematic, and Practical. The first has to do with 
the normative beginning and infallible record of Christianity j 
the second with its past history; the third with its present 
status ; and the fourth with its future prospects. 

Exegetic explains the inspired documents of the Christian 
religion, which constitute its immovable foundation. 

Church History traces the origin and growth of Christian- 
ity from the founding of the Church to the present generation. 

Systematic Theology systematizes and defends its doctrines 
and duties, as now held and understood on the basis of the 
Scriptures and the history of Christianity. 

Practical Theology sets forth its task and progressive work, 
and connects the professor's chair with the pastor's pulpit. 



BOOK II. 

EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY, 
EXEGETIC.— BIBLICAL LEARNING. 



CHAPTER LVI. 

GENERAL CONCEPTION OP EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 

Exegetical Theology or Exegetic embraces all that belongs 
to the learned explanation of the Sacred Scriptures of the Old 
and New Testaments, or the whole extent of Biblical Literature 
It is the science and practice of Biblical interpretation. 

It is the first branch of theological study, both in the order 
of time and in importance, and furnishes the foundation for all 
other branches. Hence it may be called Fundamental The- 
ology. No knowledge is more useful and indispensable to a 
minister of the gospel than that of the Word of God which is 
contained in the Bible, and which is the only infallible rule of 
Christian faith and duty. 

Exegesis (eHqyyoic, from k^hfiai, to lead out, to explain) signified, at 
Athens, the interpretation of the religious rites and ceremonies, the signs 
of heaven, the meaning of oracles, etc. Exegetes (e^yjjrai) were the sacred 
interpreters, originally the Eutrepides, afterwards three men appointed by 
the oracle of Delphi for that office. The theological signification may be 
derived from John 1 : 18, where Christ, the Logos, is called the Interpreter 
or Revealer of God (enelvog e^rryr/oaro, used emphatically, without an object, 
as regnat = rex est ; docet = doctor est). The exegetical divine must ex- 
pound and unfold the hidden meaning of the written Word, which reflects 
the personal Word (the Logos, which in Greek signifies both reason and 
speech, ratio and oratio). 

Etymologic ally, Exegetic and Hermeneutic (kpp,evevTinri diSaxv, from tppv 
vevu, to explain) have the same meaning; but the former is used in a 
wider sense and embraces both the theory and the practice of interpreta- 
tion (Auslegungswissenscliaft and Auslegungskunst) ; while the latter is con- 
fined to the principles of interpretation. 



94 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

CHAPTER LVIL 

DEPARTMENTS OF EXEGETIC. 

Exegetieal theology includes, besides exegesis proper, a num- 
ber of sciences which are either preparatory or supplementary, 
and which sum up the scattered results of exegesis in a system- 
atic form. The following scheme exhibits the various branches : 

1. Biblical Philology. 

(a) Hebrew (and Aramaic). 

(b) Greek (Classical and Hellenistic). 

2. Biblical Geography. 

3. Biblical Natural History. 

4. Biblical Archa?ology or Antiquities. 

5. Biblical Introduction or Isagogic. 

6. Biblical Criticism. 

(a) Textual Criticism. 

(b) Literary Criticism. 

7. Biblical Canonic. 

8. Biblical Hermeneutic. 

9. Biblical History (with Contemporary History of the Old 
and New Testaments, Zeitgeschichte). 

10. Biblical Theology. 

The last two branches are a systematic summary of the re- 
sults of exegesis and connect it with Church History and Sys- 
tematic Theology, where they more properly belong. 

CHAPTER LVIII. 

THE BIBLE. 

The Scriptures of the Old and New Covenants are the subjects 
of exegesis and the material on which it is employed. They are 
the sacred books of the Christians, the inspired record of divine 
revelation and the supreme rule of faith and practice. 

In one aspect the Bible is like any other book or literary 
production, and must be interpreted according to the laws of 
human thought and human speech. In another aspect it is 
different from all other books, and must be handled with pe- 
culiar care and reverence. It has a double origin and double 



THE BIBLE. 95 

character melted into one. Like the person and work of our 
Lord and Saviour, who is himself the central theme and guiding 
light of the Bible, it is theanthropic or divine-human. It has a 
truly human body, but the animating spirit is the eternal truth 
of God. As the Divine Logos became flesh and assumed our 
human nature — body, soul, and spirit, so the Word of God be- 
came flesh in the letter of the Scriptures. 

The mechanical theory of a literal inspiration ignores or nin- 
imizes the human element : it confounds inspiration with dicta- 
tion and reduces the sacred writers to passive organs or clerks 
of the Holy Spirit, contrary to the dealings of God with men 
as free and responsible agents ; while the rationalistic theory 
ignores or minimizes the divine element and obliterates the 
specific distinction between biblical inspiration and extra-biblical 
illumination. 

And as to the relationship of the two elements, we must avoid 
a confusion on the one hand, and a mechanical separation on 
the other. The Bible is both divine and human all through, 
but without mixture and without separation.* We cannot say 
that the thoughts only are divine ; while the words are alto- 
gether human. Both thoughts and words, contents and form, 
are divine, and human as well. They constitute one life, which 
kindles life in the heart of the believing reader. The Spirit of 
God dwelt in the Prophets and Apostles and directed them in 
the process of meditation and composition, but in a free way, 
and through the medium of the ordinary mental faculties. 
Every biblical writer has not only his own style, but also his 
own conception of divine truth, his own mode of reasoning, and 
used his memory and judgment and all available means of in- 
formation as much as any ordinary writer (compare the preface 
to Luke 1 : 1-4) ; and yet it is equally true that the Prophets 
" spake from God, being moved by the Holy Spirit " (2 Peter 
1 : 21). The more we study James, Peter, Paul, and John, and 
the four Evangelists, the more we find the pervading variety of 
human individualities and the pervading unity of divine truth 
in all of them, and in their thoughts as well as their style. 

The fact of inspiration, that is, the action of the divine mind 
upon the Prophets and Apostles, is as clear and undeniable as the 
action of the human soul upon the human body; but the mode 

* Hence we may say of the Bible with Origen : rtavra Oela ical avdpuwiva 
Trdvra. 



96 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

of inspiration is as mysterious as the mode of the soul's opera* 
tion upon the body. The Christian creeds and confessions as- 
sert or assume the fact, but do not define the mode, of inspira- 
tion, and leave this an open question for theological science* 

The doctrine of inspiration, as we have intimated, runs paral- 
lel with Christology, and the false theories correspond to the 
Christological errors which must be carefully avoided : (1) 
Ebionism, which denies the divine nature of Christ • (2) Gnos- 
ticism and Docetism, which deny his human nature ; (3) Apol- 
linarianism, which admits only a partial incarnation and denies 
that Christ had a human spirit (the divine Logos taking the 
place of reason) ; (4) Nestorianism, which admits both natures, 
but separates them abstractly; (5) Eutychianism and Mono- 
physitism, which confound and mix the two natures or absorb 
the human in the divine ; (6) the Kenosis theory, which sus- 
pends the divine nature of Christ during the state of humiliation. 

CHAPTER LIX. 

GENERAL HINTS FOR THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 

1. Study the Bible as a book divine as well as human ; as the 
Word of God ; as the book of life ; as the rule of faith. 

2. Study it reverently and devoutly as well as critically and 
scientifically. A purely critical study is a profanation, and 
deprives us of the spiritual benefit of the Bible. 

3. Study it more frequently, earnestly, thoroughly than any 
other work. 

4. Read it often in the original, face to face. 

5. Use the best helps: grammar, dictionary, concordance, 
and commentaries. 

6. Read the Bible in the light and faith of Christ, who is the 
Alpha and Omega, the essence and center of it. Without him 
it is a sealed book ; with him it is the power and wisdom of 
God unto salvation, the very gate of heaven. 

7. Commit the most important passages of the Psalms, the 
Gospels, and Epistles to memory, as a living concordance ready 
for constant use. 

* The only exception is the Helvetic Consensus Formula (1675), which 
teaches the literal inspiration of the Scriptures and the integrity of the 
Masoretic text of the Old Testament, including vowels and consonants ; 
but it had only local and ephemeral authority in Switzerland. 



GENERAL HINTS FOR THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 97 

Select Tributes to the Bible. 

Jerome: u Qui nescit Scripturas, nescit Dei virtutem, ejusque sapientiam. 
Ignoratio Scripturarum ignoratio Christi est." 

Augustin : " Habet Scriptura haustus primos, habet secundos, liabet ter- 
tios, liabet infinites." 

Westminster Confession of Faith (Ch. I., Sect. IV.) : "The author- 
ity of the Holy Scripture, for which it ought to be believed and obeyed, 
dependeth not upon the testimony of any man or church, but wholly upon 
God (who is truth itself), the author thereof ; and therefore it is to be re- 
ceived, because it is the Word of God." — (Yet for the authorship and can- 
onicity of the several books of the Bible we need the testimony of tradition 
and the judgment of the Church, as witnesses.) 

Izaak Walton: "Every hour 

I read you, kills a sin, 
Or lets a virtue in 
To fight against it." 

Walter Scott, on his death-bed, called for the reading of the book, 
and, being asked by Lockhart, his son-in-law, what book he meant, replied : 
"There is but one book." He meant the Bible, of which he wrote (in The 
Monastery) the well-known lines : 

" Within that awful volume lies 
The mystery of mysteries ! 
Happiest they of human race, 
To whom the Lord has granted grace 
To read, to fear, to hope, to pray, 
To lift the latch, and force the way ; 
And better had they ne'er been born, 
Who read to doubt, or read to scorn." 

Goethe made the remark: "lam convinced that the Bible grows in 
beauty the more we understand it, that is, the more we see that every 
word to which we give a general meaning and a particular application to 
ourselves, has had a specific and direct reference to definite conditions of 
time and place." * 

Heinrich Ewald (d. 1875), the great Hebraist and biblical scholar, 
the highest of the higher critics, holding a Greek Testament in his hand, 
said to Dean Stanley (who relates this in the Preface to the third volume 
of his Lectures on the Jewish Church, 1878), then a student from Oxford : 

"In this little book is contained all the wisdom of the world." 

Frederick W. Robertson. 

Sermon on Inspiration {Sermons, New York ed., pp. 828, 829). 

" It is this universal applicability of Holy Scripture which has made 

* " Ich bin uberzeugt, dass die Bibel immer schoner icird, je mehr man sie 
versteht, d. h. je mehr man einsieht mid anschaut, dass jedes Wort, das ivir 
allgemein auffassen und im besondern auf uns anwenden, nach gewissen Um- 
standen, nach Zeit- und Ortsverhdltnissen einen eigenen, besondern, unmittelbar 
individuellen Bezug gehabt hat." (Gesprdche mit Eckermann.) 



98 THEOLOGICAL PROPAEDEUTIC. 

the influence of the Bible universal : this book has held spellbound the 
hearts of nations, in a way in which no single book has ever held men be- 
fore. Remember, too, in order to enhance the marvelousness of this, 
that the nation from which it emanated was a despised people. For the 
last eighteen hundred years the Jews have been proverbially a by -word and 
a reproach. But that contempt for Israel is nothing new to the world, for 
before even the Roman despised them, the Assyrian and Egyptian regarded 
them with scorn. Yet the words which came from Israel's prophets have 
been the life-blood of the world's devotions. And the teachers, the psalm- 
ists, the prophets, and the law-givers of this despised nation spoke out 
truths that have struck the key-note of the heart of man ; and this, not 
because they were of Jewish, but just because they were of universal ap- 
plication. 

" This collection of books has been to the world what no other book has 
ever been to a nation. States have been founded on its principles. Kings 
rule by a compact based on it. Men hold the Bible in their hands when 
they prepare to give solemn evidence affecting life, death or property ; the 
sick man is almost afraid to die unless the book be within reach of his 
hands ; the battle-ship goes into action with one on board whose office is 
to expound it ; its prayers, its psalms are the language which we use when 
we speak to God ; eighteen centuries have found no holier, no diviner lan- 
guage. If ever there has been a prayer or a hymn enshrined in the heart 
of a nation, you are sure to find its basis in the Bible. There is no new 
religious idea given to the world, but it is merely the development of some- 
thing given in the Bible. The very translation of it has fixed language 
and settled the idioms of speech. Germany and England speak as they 
speak because the Bible was translated. It has made the most illiterate 
peasant more familiar with the history, customs, and geography of ancient 
Palestine than with the localities of his own country. Men who know 
nothing of the Grampians, of Snowdon, or of Skiddaw, are at home in 
Zion, the Lake of Gennesareth, or among the rills of Carmel. People who 
know little about London, know by heart the places in Jerusalem where 
those blessed feet trod which were nailed to the cross. Men who know 
nothing of the architecture of a Christian cathedral, can yet tell you all 
about the pattern of the holy temple. Even this shows us the influence 
of the Bible. The orator holds a thousand men for half an hour breathless 
— a thousand men as one, listening to his single word. But this word of 
God has held a thousand nations for thrice a thousand years spellbound ; 
held them by an abiding power, even the universality of its truth ; and we 
feel it to be no more a collection of books, but the book." 

Henry B. Smith. 

From his sermon on the Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures, delivered be- 
fore the Synod of New York and New Jersey, in the First Presbyterian 
Church at Newark, N. J., Oct. 7, 1855. 

"Central in this marvelous volume, its very center of unity, is the God- 
man, our Saviour, our Prophet, Priest and King, the ever-living Head of 
a divine kingdom, which is never to pass away. Miracles attest his divine 
commission, and that of his Prophets and Apostles also ; while Prophecy 



GENERAL HINTS FOR THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 99 

speaks of him in her most exalted strains, proclaiming his advent through 
thousands of years, and announcing the perpetuity and final victory of his 
kingdom in those daring promises, which only Omniscience could truly 
ntter, which Omnipotence alone could carry into execution in a manner so 
indubitable and unexampled. 

"And all this is presented in such a wondrous style and method, that 
human literature has nothing of stateliness or of simplicity, of poetic in- 
spiration or prosaic fidelity, of that self-forgetfulness in the writers which 
is one of the surest tests of genius, of largeness of grasp and accuracy of 
delineation, of fervid eloquence, touching appeal and concentrated aim, to 
be compared even in fugitive analogy with these utterances of the seers 
of Judasa and the Apostles of Jesus. 

" History and experience, too, add their testimony ; for this Book of 
books has had a divine efficacy ; its words are spirit and life ; penitence 
still confesses its abasement in the language of David ; faith lingers upon 
the rapt visions of Isaiah ; with John we meditate upon the very words of 
Jesus ; with Paul we receive the assurance of redemption in looking unto 
Christ ; with the oldest of the prophets we still anticipate the day when 
the seed of the woman shall crush all the powers of sin. The human 
heart knows no depth of spiritual sorrow, no height of spiritual joy, no 
elevation of faith, no wonder of divine or human love, for which it may 
not here find fitting speech. And to all the perplexing and final problems 
of human destiny, this same volume offers a definite, a truly rational, and 
an authoritative solution. Beyond its revelation no scheme of human wis- 
dom has ever reached. The most arrogant system of pantheistic infidelity 
only resolves the Christian faith into barren and abstract ideas. 

' ' Such is this Book ; and if it be such — if such a work has been written 
by fallible and sinful men — then we claim that there is an antecedent 
probability that it is also from God, and not from man alone ; that it is 
given by the inspiration of the Almighty." 

Philip Schaff. 

From his Preface to Lange's Commentary on Matthew (New York, 1864). 
Abridged. 

"Viewed merely as a literary production, the Bible is a marvelous book, 
and without a rival. All the libraries of the world could not furnish 
material enough for so a rich a treasure of the choicest gems of genius, 
wisdom, and experience. It embraces works of about forty authors, rep- 
resenting the extremes of society, from the throne of the king to the boat 
of the fisherman ; it was written during a period of sixteen centuries, on 
the banks of the Nile, in the desert of Arabia, in the land of promise, in 
Asia Minor, in classical Greece, and in imperial Rome ; it begins with the 
creation, it ends with the new heavens and the new earth, and describes 
all the intervening stages in the revelation of God and in the spiritual 
development of man. It uses all forms of literary composition ; it rises to 
the highest heights and descends to the lowest depths of humanity ; it is 
acquainted with every joy and every woe ; it contains the spiritual biog- 
raphy of every human heart ; it is suited to every class of society ; it is 
as universal as the race, and as boundless as eternity. This matchless 



100 THEOLOGICAL PROPAEDEUTIC. 

combination of human excellencies points to its divine character and ori- 
gin; as the absolute perfection of Christ's humanity is an evidence of His 
divinity. 

' ' But the Bible is first and last a book of religion. It is a book of life 
for all ages and nations. It presents the religion of God, both in its pre- 
paratory growth under the law and promise, and in its completion under 
the gospel. It speaks to us as immortal beings on the highest themes, and 
with irresistible authority. It can instruct, edify, warn, terrify, appease, 
cheer, and encourage, as no other book. It seizes man in the hidden 
depths of his intellectual and moral constitution, and goes to the quick of 
the soul, to that mysterious point where it is connected with the unseen 
world and with the great Father of spirits. It purines, ennobles, sancti- 
fies man, and brings him into living union with Grod. It has light for the 
blind, strength for the weak, food for the hungry, drink for the thirsty ; it 
has, in precept or example, a counsel for every relation in life, a comfort 
for every sorrow, a balm for every wound. Like the diamond, it casts its 
luster in every direction ; like a torch, the more it is shaken, the more 
it shines ; like a healing herb, the harder it is pressed, the sweeter is its 
fragrance. Of all the books in the world, the Bible is the only one of 
which we never tire, but which we admire and love more and more in pro- 
portion as we use it. 

" What an unspeakable blessing, that this inexhaustible treasure of di^ 
vine truth and comfort is now accessible, without material alteration, to 
almost every nation on earth in its own tongue, and, in Protestant coun- 
tries at least, even to the humblest man and woman that can read or 
hear ! " 

Heinrich Heine. 

Heinrich Heine, a mocking unbeliever but brilliant poetic genius, makes 
in the preface to the second edition of his book on Deutsche Religion und 
Philosophic, 1852, the following striking confession of his conversion from 
atheism to deism : 

" I owe my illumination wholly to the reading of one book, — yes, one 
book, and it is an old plain book, modest and natural as nature itself, 
as common and unpretentious as the sun which warms us, as the bread 
which nourishes us ; — a book which looks at us as familiarly and benig- 
nantly as an old grandmother who reads in it daily, with the dear trembling 
lips and spectacles on her nose. And this book is simply and properly 
called the book, the Bible, also the Holy Scripture. He who lost his God 
can find him again in this book, and he who never knew him will feel 
in it the breath of the divine word." 

Heine repeats this confession in his Bekenntnisse, 1854. 



FIRST SECTION: BIBLICAL PHILOLOGY. 

(Philologia Sacra.) 



CHAPTER LX. 

IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGES. 

Every branch of theology rests on a secular science ; as the- 
ological Seminaries rest on Colleges, and Colleges on Academies, 
and Academies on elementary Schools. The necessary prepara- 
tion for Exegesis is Biblical philology ; that is, the knowledge 
of the original languages of the Bible, — the Hebrew of the Old, 
and the Greek of the New Testament. 

Language is the key to unlock the reason, and the medium of 
communication of mind to mind. Ratio and oratio, the two 
significations of the Greek logos, are intimately connected. The 
thought is the inward word, or the speech of the mind ; the 
word is the outward thought, its necessary form and expression. 
" To speak in his heart," means, in Hebrew, to think. We can- 
not conceive an idea, without clothing it in words, whether we 
utter them or not. To say, " I know it, but I cannot express 
it," amounts to a confession that the thought is not yet born, or 
is involved in obscurity. 

By means of translations it is possible to get an intimate 
knowledge of the Bible sufficient for practical purposes. It 
would indeed be disastrous for the great mass of mankind, if 
they had to study Greek and Hebrew before they could under- 
stand the sacred volume which teaches them the way of life and 
salvation. 

But without the knowledge of the original we would have no 
translation at all. And there is a difference between a popular 
or practical, and a critical or theological understanding and 
interpretation. For the latter some acquaintance with the 



102 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

original is indispensable. It is a general characteristic of scien- 
tific operation to go to the source, to the prime fountain and 
principle. 

Moreover, we have no faultless translations of the Bible. God 
has made no provision for inspired and infallible translators any 
more than for infallible commentators, preachers and printers. 
The best translations admit of constant improvement as the lan- 
guage changes and as the knowledge of the original advances. 

Even if we had a perfect translation, it could never be an 
equivalent for the original. The best translation is only a copy 
and an imitation. It is an inestimable privilege to study the 
Bible face to face as it came from the hands of its inspired au- 
thors, and to drink the water of life as it gushes fresh from the 
primitive rock. Zwingli said that he learned the Greek lan- 
guage that he might draw the doctrine of Christ from the foun- 
tain ( u ut ex fontibus doctrinam Christi haurire possem"). With- 
out this knowledge he could not have become a Reformer. 

The study or neglect of the original languages of the Script- 
ure is inseparably connected with the prosperity or decay of 
religion and pure doctrine. The period of the fathers, when the 
Greek was still a living tongue, was very fruitful in exegetical 
learning, and the most useful of the fathers were those who 
studied the Bible most carefully (Origen, Chrysostom, Jerome, 
Augustin*). In the Middle Ages the knowledge of Greek and 
Hebrew almost disappeared from the Latin Church ; the study 
of the Bible was sadly neglected, and all sorts of unscriptural 
traditions were accumulated, and obscured the Christian faith. 
The Revival of Letters in the 15th and 16th centuries by 
Agricola, Reuchlin, Erasmus, Melanchthon, and others, was a 
very important preparation for the Revival of primitive Chris- 
tianity. The Reformers were good Greek and Hebrew scholars, 
and rank among the best translators and commentators of all 
ages. 

It must, of course, not be supposed that a knowledge of Greek 
and Hebrew, however profound, is of itself sufficient to make a 
theologian. A poor philologist may be a profound divine, while 
a master in the languages may be a rationalist or unbeliever. 
All depends at last on the proper spirit. Without faith it is 
impossible to understand the spiritual depths of the Bible. 

* Augustin, however, often missed the sense from his defective know- 
ledge of Greek and his ignorance of Hebrew. 



CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES. 103 

CHAPTER LXI. 

CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES. 

The languages of the world are divided into three stocks or 
families. 

I. The Semitic stock embraces the languages spoken by the 
descendants of Sem or Shem, one of the sons of Noah (Gen. 10 : 
21-31) j that is, by the nations of Western Asia, in Palestine, 
Phoenicia, Syria, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Arabia. It may 
also be called the Western Asiatic or Syro- Arabic stock.* 
It includes the Hebrew, Aramaic (Eastern and Western), Phoe- 
nician, Arabic, and Assyrian languages, besides a few subordinate 
dialects (the Samaritan, Hymaritic, and Ethiopic). The Arabic 
and New Syriac are still in active use, especially the Arabic, but 
the Biblical Hebrew, the Old Syriac and other Semitic lan- 
guages are quite or almost dead. 

II. The Indo-G-ermanic or Aryan or Japhetic or Indo- 
European stock embraces the Sanscrit (the sacred language of 
the Hindus), the Persian, the classical languages of Greece and 
Rome, the Romanic, Celtic, Germanic, and Slavonic tongues, 
with their ramifications.! 

* The term Semitic (as the French, German, and some English writers 
spell it), or Shemitic (after the more accurate transliteration of the Hebrew), 
has come into nse since Eichhorn (1794) and Schlozer (1781), and, though 
not strictly correct, is preferable to the older designation, Oriental, which 
dates from Jerome, but is too comprehensive according to modern ideas 
of the Orient, which includes Central and Eastern Asia and Egypt as well 
as Western Asia. The Semitic family of nations, with corresponding lan- 
guages and dialects, are : the Hebrews, Phoenicians, Arama?ans, Assyro- 
Babylonians, Arabs, and Abyssinians. According to the ethnological table 
in Gen. 10 : 22, the sons of Shem were Elam, Asshur, Arpachshad, Lud, and 
Aram. From Arpachshad are descended the Hebrews and the Arabs. But 
Elam belongs to the Persian stock ; while the Canaanites and Phoenicians, 
whose language is cognate to the Hebrew, are traced back to Cush (Ethi- 
opia), and several Arabic tribes to Ham (10 : 5, 6). 

+ The term In do- Germanic denotes the two geographical extremes of 
these languages and nationalities, but would exclude the Celts who emi- 
grated further West than the Germans. The term Aryan (from the Sanscrit 
drya, excellent ; akin to the name of the country, Iran) would only embrace 
the Indians and Persians (Iranians). Indo-European is a more comprehen- 
sive term. The agreement of the languages of this stock has been shown 
chiefly by Franz Bopp (1791-1867), the founder of the science of Compara- 
tive Philology, in his Vergleichende Grammatik (Berlin, 1833-52, 6 vols., 
third ed. 1868-71, 3 vols., translated into French and English). The 
comparative vocabulary is given in Fick's Vergleichendes Worterbuch der 
indogermanischen Sprachen, 3d ed. Gottingen, 1874-76, 3 vols. 



104 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

The Romanic family, derived from the old Latin, embraces 
the Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Romansh (in the 
Grisons, Switzerland). The Celtic family embraces the old Brit- 
ish, Irish, Welsh, and Gaelic. The Germanic or Teutonic family : 
Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, German, Dutch, Danish, Swedish. The 
Slavonic family : Russ, Polish, Bohemian, Lithuanian. 

III. The Turanian stock includes the Chinese and cognate 
languages, which consist of disconnected unchangeable words, 
without prefixes, suffixes, and inflections denoting relations and 
modifications of meaning. These languages have no connec- 
tion with biblical studies, and come in contact with Christian- 
ity only on missionary ground. 



CHAPTER LXII. 

THE SEMITIC LANGUAGES. 

Porta Linguarum Orientalium incohavit J. H. Petermann continuavit 
Herm. L. Strack. Berlin, London, Paris, New York (Westermann & Co.). 
A series of manuals of all Semitic languages, with bibliography, chres- 
tomathy and glossary, prepared by different scholars. — William Wright, 
Lectures on the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages. Cam- 
bridge, 1890. Eenan, Ristoire Generate des Langues Semitique. Paris, 
1855, 2d ed., 1858, 2 vols. The second part, the Systeme compare, has not 
yet appeared. 

There must have been a primitive Semitic race and a primi- 
tive Semitic language ; but they are lost in the darkness of pre- 
historic times. We may infer from G-en. 11 : 2 that the Semites 
settled in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley, towards which the 
descendants of Noah were moving ("from the East"). They 
spread over Western Asia to the Mediterranean coast, and sent 
colonies to the Delta of Egypt, to North Africa (Carthage), and 
the south of France (Marseilles). They may be broadly divided 
into Northern Semites : the Aramaeans, Canaanites, Phoenicians, 
Hebrews, Babylonians, Assyrians; and Southern Semites: the 
Arabs and Abyssinians. The Jews and the Arabs still remain, 
with remnants of a few other branches. 

The Semitic languages and dialects resemble one another 
much more closely than the branches of the Aryan family, 
which occupy a larger territory and embrace a greater variety 



THE SEMITIC LANGUAGES. 105 

of nationalities. They are as closely connected as the old 
Norse, Gothic, High and Low German, and old English ; or as 
the Latin languages (Roman, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, 
Provencal, and French). They have a peculiar phonetic system, a 
simple syntax, and a limited vocabulary. They are not adapted 
for philosophy and science, but are very rich in emotional, pro- 
verbial, poetic and religious expressions. The Hebrew vocabu- 
lary has furnished to the languages of Christian Europe a num- 
ber of religious terms for which there were no Aryan equiva- 
lents. 

A striking superficial peculiarity of most Semitic books is, 
that they are written and read from right to left. But the 
Assyrian runs from left to right. 

The Semitic alphabet has a variety of gutturals — the Arabic 
no less than six — which are breathed up from the throat and 
drawn as it were from the depth of the heart, but cannot be 
reproduced by Occidentals. Herder says of the Hebrew : " It is 
full of the breath of the soul, it does not sound, like the Greek, 
but it breathes, it lives." * The Arabic spoken by a native Arab 
in the East is much more musical than when pronounced by a 
Western scholar. 

The consonants constitute the solid body of the words, ani- 
mated by vowels, and determine the signification. The stem- 
words are tri-literal (consisting of three consonants), and dissyl- 
labic. They are enriched in a phonetic manner by the multipli- 
cation of sounds, or by doubling the radical consonants, or by 
attaching new consonants to the root. There are only two 
genders (no neuter), and only two tenses of the verb, — the per- 
fect and the imperfect ; the perfect for expressing the completed, 
the imperfect for expressing the incomplete or hypothetical 
act, whether past, present, or future. The verbs predominate 
over the nouns. The oblique cases are not marked by case 
endings (although traces may be found in certain archaic forms), 
but by prepositions, and the genitive by the status co?istructus, 
that is, by closely combining the noun in the genitive with the 
governing noun, so as to make a compound of the two. There 
is a scarcity of particles and compounds. The structure of sen- 
tences is lapidary, detached, isolated, picturesque ; no elaborate 
periods, no involutions, inversions, and transpositions for rhetor- 
ical effect. The sentences do not grow, like trees, by logical or 
* "Die Hebraische Sprache tout niclit, dber sie hancht, sie lebt." 



106 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

organic process, but are piled up like the stones of a building 
or follow each other like the waves of the sea. In the Hebrew 
the sentences are usually connected by "and" (vav and vav con- 
secutive), which by a simple change of vocalization, accentuation, 
or position may denote simple consecution or purpose or result. 

Parallelism — synthetic, or antithetic, or progressive — is char- 
acteristic of Semitic poetry, and also of sententious and elevated 
prose. It resembles the napping of the two wings of a bird, or 
the alternate rising and falling of a fountain, or the advancing 
and receding flow of the tide. It constitutes a peculiar charm 
of the poetry of the Old Testament, and admits of easy transla- 
tion into other languages. 

The simplicity, boldness, and sublimity of the Semitic lan- 
guages admirably adapt them to be vehicles of the early revela- 
tions of G-od to the human race. This is especially true of 
Hebrew. 



CHAPTER LXIII. 

THE HEBREW. 

The Hebrew * is by far the most important of the Semitic 
languages for the theologian and minister, for all the canonical 
books of the Old Testament are composed in that language, 
with the exception of a few Aramaic passages (namely, Daniel 
2 : 4-7 : 28 ; Ezra 4 : 8-6 : 18 ; 7 : 12-26 ; Jer. 10 : 11). The 
Aramaic^ however, is closely related to the Hebrew both in its 
vocabulary and grammatical structure. 

The Hebrew language is the medium of the Old Testament 
revelation. It is simple, natural, childlike, and yet forcible, 
majestic, and eminently fitted for worship. It is rich in syno- 
nyms. It is said to have 2,000 roots to 10,000 words ; while 
the English has fewer roots, but over 200,000 words (the Cent- 
ury Dictionary gives about 215,000 words). 

The Hebrew surpasses all Semitic languages in prophetic ora- 
tory. It has the most important literature. It was probably 
used by the Canaanites and Phoenicians before the immigration 

* Derived from Eber or Heber, the ancestor of Abraham (Gen. 14 : 13). 
In the Old Testament it is called "the language of Canaan," or "the Jews' 
language"; in the New Testament, "the language of the Hebrews," or 
"Hebrew" CEftpaig diaAenToq, yAucca rtiv 'Efipalov, ' ~Ef3 paler t), is Aramaic. 
John 5:2; 19 : 13 ; Acts 21 : 40 ; 22 : 2 ; 26 : 14 ; Rev. 9 : 11 ; 16 : 16. 



THE HEBREW. 107 

of Abraham, who originally spoke Aramaic (comp. Gen. 31 : 47). 
The remains of the Phoenician and the cognate Punic languages 
in inscriptions, tablets, coins, and sepulchral monuments, agree 
closely with the Hebrew. 

Jewish rabbis, Christian fathers, and some of the older Prot- 
estant divines indulged the fancy that the Hebrew was the prim- 
itive language, that it was spoken by God and by angels, as well 
as by Adam in Paradise, and that it prevailed universally till the 
Flood and the dispersion of Babel. They called it lingua Dei 9 
lingua angelonun, lingua prophetarum. The Buxtorfs, father and 
son, both distinguished for Hebrew and Talmudic scholarship, 
believed in the literal inspiration of the Old Testament, includ- 
ing the Masoretic vowel-points and accents, and advised all 
Christians to learn Hebrew that they might praise God in that 
language. This is a species of pious and learned Bibliolatry. 

The Hebrew was transplanted by the patriarchs to Egypt and 
brought back again by the Israelites to Canaan. It was their 
mother-tongue during the time of their national independence, 
and with some modification down to the destruction of Jerusa- 
lem, and is their sacred language to this day. The Law and 
the Prophets are still read and the Psalter chanted from the 
original in the Jewish synagogues, and prayers are usually 
printed in Hebrew and another language in parallel columns. 

The Hebrew, owing to the greater stability of the Eastern 
nations, and the Semitic languages as compared with the Aryan, 
the firm character of the Mosaic institutions, its confinement to 
sacred literature, and the isolation of the Jews from foreign 
nations, remained substantially the same during the flourishing . 
period of its literature. Yet we may distinguish three periods 
in its growth and decay : the Mosaic ; the Davidic and Solo- 
monic ; the Babylonian and post-exilic. The earliest pre-Mosaic, 
Mosaic, and post-Mosaic records are marked by grand simplicity 
and certain archaic forms of speech : here belong the stories of 
the creation and the fall, and the poetic and prophetic sections of 
Genesis — the song of Lamech (Gen. 4 : 23) ; the blessing of 
Noah (9 : 25-27) ; the blessing of Jacob (49 : 2-28) ; the Song of 
Moses (Ex. 15) ; the Ten Words (Ex. 20) ; the Farewell Song 
and Blessing of Moses (Deut. 32 and 33) ; the Prayer of Moses 
(Ps. 90) ; the Song of Deborah (Judges 5 : 2-31). With David 
and Solomon begins the golden age of Hebrew literature, which 
continued down to the exile. To it belong the older Psalms 



108 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

and Proverbs, the prophecies of Isaiah, Micah, Nahum, Habak- 
kuk, Jonah, Amos, Hosea, and probably also the Book of Job, 
although this is often assigned to an earlier date. During the 
Babylonian exile the Hebrew language was assimilated to the 
kindred Aramaic or Chaldee, as may be seen, in various degrees, 
in the books of Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles, Esther, Jeremiah, 
Ezekiel, Daniel, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, and the later 
Psalms. 

Gradually the Aramaic superseded the Hebrew as the living 
language of the people. It was the mother-tongue of Christ 
and the Apostles .* 

The Jews of the Dispersion used the Greek with a Hebrew 
coloring and accent, and hence were called Hellenists, or Gre- 
cian Jews, as distinct from the Hebrews in Palestine. 

The Hebrew of the Old Testament, after having accomplished 
its great purpose, died as a spoken tongue and became stereo- 
typed and unalterably fixed for the benefit of future generations. 
It was thus protected against the changes which every living 
language in the process of its growth and decay must undergo. 
The same is the case with the Hellenistic, or Jewish Christian 
dialect of the New Testament. This fixed character of the Bible 
language is a positive advantage : it enables the reader to drink 
from the pure fountain of the original, and facilitates the work 
of the translator and commentator. The Bible can be easily 
reproduced in any language without losing its force and beauty 
by the process. 

A knowledge of Hebrew is necessary, or at all events most 
helpful, to the minister for the understanding of the Old Testa- 
ment, and also of the New ; for the Gospels and Epistles con- 
stantly quote from the Law and the Prophets, and point to their 
fulfilment in Christ. Besides, the Hellenistic Greek is strongly 
Hebraistic, and many words and phrases derive their full 
meaning only from the vernacular Aramaic of Christ and the 
Apostles. The two Testaments are so closely connected in spirit 

* When the New Testament speaks of Hebrew as then used in Palestine, 
the Aramaic is meant, as is evident from such words as Bethesda, Gabba- 
tha, Golgotha, Rabbi, Messias, Mammonas, Bar Jonah, Talitha Kumi, 
Epphatha, Abba, Kephas, Akeldama. Josephus often uses Hebrew in the 
sense of Aramaic. Christ is reported by Mark to have spoken Aramaic 
on three occasions, when he raised the daughter of Jairus (4 : 41), when he 
opened the ears of the deaf man (7 : 34), and when he exclaimed on the 
cross, "Eloi, Eloi, lamma sabachthani" (15:35). " Mm" is the Syriac 
form for the Hebrew Eli (Ps. 22 : 1 ; Matt, 27 : 46). 



HISTORY OF HEBREW LEARNING. 109 

and form, that one cannot be understood without the other. 
" The New Testament is concealed in the Old, the Old Testa- 
ment is revealed in the New." The mere knowledge of the lan- 
guage is, of course, not sufficient ; otherwise Jewish rabbis and 
Hebrew grammarians would be the best interpreters of the Old 
Testament. It is only in the light of Christianity that we can 
fully comprehend the Hebrew Scriptures. 

Besides the Old Testament we have a few remains of the ancient He- 
brew, viz. : (1) The inscription of the Moabite stone from the ninth cen- 
tury before Christ (about 850), discovered at Dibon, in Moab, in 1868, by 
Klein, and containing in thirty-four lines an account of King Mesha of 
Moab, about 900 B.C., and his conflicts with Israel (eomp. 2 Kings 3 : 4 sqq.). 
(2) The Siloam inscription, of the seventh century B.C., found in 1881 in 
a tunnel, about fifteen feet from the pool of Siloam ; it narrates the com- 
pletion of the tunnel. (3) Twenty cut stones (seals), containing mostly 
names only, partly from the period before the exile. (4) Coins of the 
Maccabeean prince, John Hyrcanus (B.C. 135), and his successors. The 
inscriptions on tombstones in the Hebrew cemeteries of ancient Rome, 
discovered and deciphered by Garrucci and Schurer, are mostly Greek, 
some Latin, but none Hebrew. 

In some parts of Persia the Jews are said to use Hebrew still as their 
mother-tongue. It is also spoken by the Jews in Jerusalem, and the first 
newspaper published there was in Hebrew. Since the efforts of Moses 
Mendelssohn and his friend David Friedlander in the eighteenth century to 
raise the Hebrew from the dead, it has to a limited extent again become 
a spoken language in Europe, and Hebrew periodicals and works original 
and translated, in different departments of literature, are appearing from 
German, Russian, and American presses. Among recent Hebrew trans- 
lations we may mention portions of Schiller, Goethe's Faust, Homer's 
Odyssey, Longfellow's Excelsior, Eugene Sue's Mysteries of Paris. Bun- 
yan's Pilgrim's Progress was translated by S. Hoga. The New Testament 
has been repeatedly translated into Hebrew, by Elias Hutter (1600), 
Joachim Neumann, Greenfield, and others, and last by Prof. Franz De- 
litzsch (1876, 5th ed., revised, 1883, published by the British and Foreign 
Bible Society). 



CHAPTER LXIV. 

HISTORY OF HEBREW LEARNING. 

1. The ancient Christians knew the Old Testament mostly 
from translations, especially the Septnagint, the Itala, and the 
Vnlgate. The Greek and Latin fathers, with the exception of 
Origen, Epiphanius (probably a Jew by birth), Ephraem, and 
Jerome, were ignorant of Hebrew, and for this reason made 



110 THEOLOGICAL PROPAEDEUTIC. 

many mistakes in their exegesis. Even Augustin knew, besides 
his native Latin, only a little Greek, and a few Hebrew words, 
and relied on the defective Itala for his knowledge of the Bible. 

Jerome learned Hebrew from Jewish rabbis in Syria, and was 
thus enabled to revise the Itala and to translate the Old Testa- 
ment from the original. He taught St. Paula and other pious 
Roman ladies to chant the Psalter in the original. By his Vul- 
gate Version he did an inestimable service to the mediaeval 
Church. He had to fight his way against the ignorance and 
prejudice of his over-conservative assailants, and, in one of his 
spicy letters, he calls them "two-legged donkeys" (bipedos asel- 
los), to whom " a lyre is played in vain." 

In the Syrian Church, owing to the affinity of language, a 
knowledge of Hebrew was more common 5 the Peshitta or Syriac 
translation of the Scriptures is a noble monument of Hebrew 
learning. The writings of Ephraem Syrus show likewise some 
acquaintance with the original text of the Old Testament. 

The Jews kept up a learned knowledge of their language in 
the schools at Tiberias. The Talmudists and Masorets (who 
contributed to the Masora or the body of critical traditions re- 
lating to the text of the Hebrew Scriptures) handed down the 
manuscripts from which our text is derived. The Masoretic 
text, so called, will always be the basis of translations and com- 
mentaries, but admits of considerable improvement from the 
Septuagint and other sources, especially the Septuagint which 
was derived from Hebrew manuscripts much older than those 
we now possess. Moreover, the quotations in the New Testa- 
ment are mostly taken from the Septuagint. 

2. In the Middle Ages, the Hebrew was exclusively cultivated 
by learned Jews (especially in Spain during the Moorish rule), 
such as Ibn Ezra (d. 1170), David Kimchi (1200), Moses Mai- 
monides (d. 1204). Even the greatest scholastic divines, as 
Anselm, Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventura, were ignorant of He- 
brew. Christians had to learn it from the Jews after the revival 
of letters. Nicolaus Lyra, a Franciscan monk who taught the- 
ology in Paris (d. 1340), knew Hebrew and applied it to exegesis 
in his brief commentaries on the Bible, which were much used 
by Erasmus and Luther.* 

Elias Levita, a German Jew (Elihu ben Asher Hallevi, d. 1549), 
taught the language in Italy during the first half of the sixteenth 

* See eh. cxxxiv., p. 210. 



HISTORY OF HEBREW LEARNING. Ill 

century, and put grammatical rules into Hebrew rhymes. Wes- 
sel, Agricola, and others who are named among the forerunners 
of the Reformation, learned the language to a limited extent. 

3. The Reformation kindled an enthusiasm for the Bible and a 
spirit of free inquiry. Since that time the Hebrew was made a 
part of regular theological study, at least in the Protestant 
Churches. But the Reformation could not have taken place 
without the preceding Renaissance or the revival of ancient 
learning. 

Reuchlin, the great-uncle of Melanchthon, broke the path. 
He is the father of modern Hebrew learning among Chris- 
tians. He acquired the language from John Wessel, from 
Matthew Adrianus (a converted Spanish Jew), and several Jew- 
ish scholars at Vienna and Rome, and taught it in Germany till 
his death, 1522. He coined most of the technical terms which 
have since been in use in Hebrew grammar (as status absolutus, 
status eonstrxictus, afjixum, verba imperfecta, quiescentia, etc.), and 
introduced the pronunciation which prevails in Germany. His 
grammar, Rudimenta Hebraica, 1505, based upon David Kimchi, 
was the first Hebrew grammar written by a Christian, unless 
we except Pellican's De Modo legendi et inteUigendi Hebrceinn, 
which appeared one or two years earlier (at Strassburg, 1504).* 
Reuchlin had to suffer much persecution from the ignorant 
monks, who were afraid of such studies ; hence he calls himself 
Hebraicarum Utterarum protomartyr. He died, however, in the 
Roman Catholic Church. He and Erasmus stood on the dividing 
line between the Renaissance and the Reformation, and between 
mediaeval Catholicism and modern Protestantism. 

Luther, Melanchthon, Zwingli, (Ecolampadius, Calvin, and 
other reformers cultivated and highly recommended the study 
of Hebrew. Without such knowledge Luther could not have 
produced such a masterly translation of the Bible, nor could 
Calvin have written his unrivaled commentaries. 

Even the Roman Church could not entirely neglect it. The 
Jesuits, Bellarmin, Huntley, and others took it up, though 
mostly in a polemical interest to show the necessity of church 
authority and to disprove the Protestant doctrine of the per- 
spicuity of the Scriptures. Huntley showed that the very first 

* This book was recently discovered and republished by Nestle, Tubin- 
gen, 1877. Pellican was called to Zurich as teacher of Hebrew by Zwingli 
in 1525. He died in 1556. 



112 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

verse of Genesis admitted grammatically of eight interpreta- 
tions, beside the orthodox one, and that Elohim may mean 
"gods," or "angels/ 7 or "magistrates," etc. 

4. The dogmatic scholasticism which set in after the Reforma- 
tion led again to a neglect of biblical philology and exegesis ; 
but could not entirely stop progress. The mechanical inspira- 
tion theory of Lutheran and Reformed divines hindered the 
understanding of the spirit, but promoted the study of the let- 
ter, of the Bible. 

The greatest Hebrew and Talmudic scholars of the seven- 
teenth century were the two Buxtorfs of Basel, father and son, 
especially the father (d. 1629, author of a Hebrew grammar and 
lexicon). Next to them Salomo Glassius (d. 1656), professor 
in Jena and author of the Philologia sacra (1625, 1705, 1776), 
which was once regarded as the key for the solution of all exe- 
getical difficulties. John Lightfoot (a member of the West- 
minster Assembly of Divines, d. 1675) prepared from his exten 
sive reading the illustrative Horce Hebraicm et Talmudicee (1,648) 
which are still used and quoted by scholars. A valuable con- 
tinuation and supplement of this work was furnished in 1733 
by Christian Schottgen (d. at Dresden, 1751) in his Horce 
TLebr. et Talm. in universum A T . Test. 

5. A new epoch for Hebrew learning was opened in the nine- 
teenth century by two great scholars, G-esenius and Ewald, 
who vastly advanced the critical knowledge of the language 
and literature of the Old Testament, but differed widely in their 
spirit and method. Wilhelm G-esenius (1786-1842, Professor in 
Halle), a rationalist, but a very able, clear-headed, industrious, 
and useful Hebraist, still continues to guide beginners in the 
empirical study of the language by his grammar (1813), which, 
with the successive improvements of Rodiger and Kautzsch, has 
reached the twenty-fifth edition (1889), and has been several 
times translated into English (by Mos. Stuart, Th. J. Conant, 
Benj. Davis, E. C. Mitchell) ; while his Hebrew Lexicon (Ger- 
man ed. 1815, 11th ed. by Miihlau and Volck, 1890; Latin ed. 
1833 ; English translations by Tregelles and Robinson) and his 
great Thesaurus (completed by Rodiger, 1829-58, 3 vols.) are 
indispensable. Heinrich Ewald (1803-75, Professor in Got- 
tingen, then in Tubingen, and again in Gottingen) was a gen- 
ius and scholar of the first order, but eccentric, excessively 
independent and sublimely conceited, yet very religious (he 



HISTORY OF HEBREW LEARNING. 113 

looked and spoke like a prophet of Jahveh, and in his way he 
was a prophet). He first grasped and expounded the philoso- 
phy of the Hebrew syntax (Lehrbuch, 8th ed. 1870 ; the por- 
tion on Syntax translated by James Kennedy, 1879). 

The more recent scholars have the great additional advantage 
of the Assyrian discoveries. 

Next to these masters, must be mentioned the services of 
Hupfeld (1841), Furst (1857), Delitzsch (father and son), 
Dietrich (1846), J. Olshau-sen (1861), Bottcher and Muhlau 
(1866-68), Bickell (1870, well translated by Samuel Ives 
Curtiss, 1877), Xagelsbach (1856, 4th ed. 1880), Seffer (7th 
ed., 1883), Stade (1879), Konig (1881), Strack (1883). 

Siegfried and Stade published a new Hebrew Lexicon, 1892. 

The modern Hebrew learning in France, England, and Scot- 
land is mostly dependent upon that of Germany. S. P. Tre- 
gelles published Meads of Hebrew Grammar (1852), The Eng- 
lish mans Hebrew and Chaldee Concordance to the Old Testament 
(1843), and a translation of Gesenius's Lexicon (1859). B. A. 
Davtes is the author of a Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon (3d ed. re- 
vised by E. C. Mitchell, 1880). Robert Young published an 
Analytical Concordance of the whole Bible, with the Hebrew and 
Greek words (1879). Professor A. B. Davidson of Edinburgh 
has written a useful Introductory Hebrew Grammar (8th ed. 
1891), and Canon Driver of Oxford a valuable Treatise on the 
Use of the Tenses in Hebrew (3d ed. 1892.) 

6. The fathers of Hebrew learning in America are Moses 
Stuart of Andover (d. 1852), Joseph Addison Alexander of 
Princeton (d. 1860), and Edward Robinson of the Union Theo- 
logical Seminary in New York (d. 1864). They introduced the 
fruits of critical German scholarship, as then represented by 
Gesenius, but happily retained the traditional English and 
American reverence for the "Word of God. Stuart published, 
besides several commentaries, a Hebrew Grammar, based on 
Gesenius. Alexander wrote commentaries on Isaiah and the 
Psalms (based upon Hengstenberg). Robinson prepared a 
Hebrew Lexicon (20th ed. 1881) on the basis of Gesenius, 
which has heretofore been the best, but is now undergoing a 
complete reconstruction, according to the latest Semitic discov- 
eries and researches, by Professors Brown and Briggs of the 
Union Theological Seminary, New York, and Canon Driver, 
Professor of Hebrew in the University of Oxford, published by 



114 THEOLOGICAL PROPAEDEUTIC. 

the Clarendon Press, and by Houghton, Mifflin & Co., New 
York, 1892 sq. 

Hebrew grammars have been written by Bush, Conant, 
Nordheimer, Green, Harper, and Bissell. Those of Nord- 
heimer (of Union Th. Sem., New York, 1842, 2 vols.) and Green 
(of Princeton, 4th ed. 1883) are of superior merit. 

A new generation of Hebrew scholars, trained in German 
universities, is growing up and producing a revival of Semitic 
studies to an extent unknown before. An Oriental Society 
was founded at Boston in 1842, and edits a journal which 
corresponds to the journals of the German and French 
Oriental Societies. Several Theological Seminaries (Union, 
Princeton, Andover, Yale) provide for instruction in all the 
Semitic languages. An Institute of Hebreiv was organized De- 
cember 31, 1880, under the inspiration of Dr. William R. Har- 
per, President of the new University of Chicago, an enthusiastic 
Hebraist and indefatigable worker. The Institute consists of 
thirty-seven professors of Hebrew of various denominations, 
and carries on a Correspondence Schoo], and four Summer 
Schools, which are held for several weeks, during the summer 
vacation, simultaneously in Eastern and Western cities. Stu- 
dents, ministers, and even ladies attend. In addition to the 
Hebrew, the other Semitic languages are also taught in these 
summer schools. 

Ultimately all the leading colleges will have to provide for 
the optional study of Hebrew and other Semitic languages. 
In this way the Theological Seminaries will be relieved of the 
preparatory grammatical drill and be able to devote their 
strength to the higher work of exegesis. 



CHAPTER LXV. 

THE OTHER SEMITIC LANGUAGES. 

The study of other Semitic languages besides Hebrew is un- 
necessary for the great majority of theological students and 
pastors, who may employ their time more profitably, but it is 
indispensable for those who would make the Old Testament 
language and literature the subject of special critical and com- 
parative research. 



THE ARAMAIC LANGUAGES. 115 

The Aramaic is essential for Rabbinical and Talmudic 
scholarship, and the Syriac gives access to a considerable body 
of ancient Christian literature. 

The Assyrian is important not only for its close affinity with 
the Hebrew, but also for the parallel sections of its literature. 
The recovery of this language has opened a new field for com- 
parative Semitic philology and history. 

The Arabic facilitates a thorough understanding of Hebrew, 
and the geographical exploration of Bible lands. It has an 
independent literary and historical value for the student of the 
Koran and the history of Islam. It is indispensable to mission- 
aries in Mohammedan countries. 



CHAPTER LXVI. 

THE ARAMAIC LANGUAGES. 

The Aramaic (Aramgean) group differs, especially in its ear- 
lier form, very slightly from the Hebrew. Jacob and Laban 
understood each other, the one speaking Hebrew, the other 
Aramaic (comp. Gen. 31 : 47). Gideon, or Purah, or both, un- 
derstood the conversation of " the Midianites and the Amale- 
kites, and all the children of the East " (Judges 7 : 9-15). 
At a later period only the educated Jews were familiar with 
Aramaic (2 Kings 18 : 26) ; but still later, after the Babylonian 
exile, the Aramaic supplanted the Hebrew even in Palestine, 
and continued to be the language of the Hebrews during the 
Persian, Greek, and Roman periods. It was the native lan- 
guage of Christ and his Apostles (who spoke the Galilean dia- 
lect ; comp. Matt. 26 : 73 ; Mark 14 : 70). 

The Aramaic is probably as old as the Hebrew, if not older, 
but is known to us mainly from the time of the Babylonian 
exile. It prevailed in Mesopotamia, Palestine, and Syria. It 
is still spoken in part, though corruptly, in the neighborhood 
of Mosul and Lake Oroomiah ; but upon the whole it has been 
supplanted by the Arabic with the spread of Mohammedanism. 
It is more rough and flat in its consonants, poorer in vowels, 
and far less cultivated than the Hebrew. Among its peculiari- 
ties are the preponderance of consonants, the emphatic state of 



116 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

nouns (equivalent to the article in Hebrew and Arabic), the ter- 
mination in for the plural of the masculine (as Sanhedriri), etc. 
The principal languages of the Aramaic group are the Ara- 
maic proper, or Chaldee, and the Syriac. They differ mainly 
in pronunciation and spelling. 



CHAPTER LXVII. 

THE BIBLICAL ARAMAIC AND THE RABBINICAL HEBREW. 

The Aramaic, or Chaldee so called, was the language of Syria ; 
it got the upper hand of the Hebrew in ordinary use in Pales- 
tine since the fourth or fifth century before Christ.* It occurs 
in the later portions of the Old Testament,! in a few remains of 
the current speech in Palestine in the New Testament, where it 
is called " Hebrew ";J then in the Targums (i.e., translations 
and paraphrases of the Old Testament), the Masora, the Tal- 
mud, and the Jewish scholars of the Middle Ages (Ibn Ezra, 
Maimonides, Kimchi, Rashi, etc.). 

The Rabbinical and Talmudic Hebrew is also called the " New 
Hebrew," in distinction from the Hebrew of the Old Testament, 
which the Rabbins endeavored artificially to imitate. It is re- 
lated to the pure Hebrew as the monastic and ecclesiastical 
Latin is to the classical Latin of Cicero. Buxtorf, in his Chal- 
dee-Talmudic Dictionary, notices throughout the Rabbinical 
vocabulary. The language of the Talmud is essentially Ara- 
maic mixed with Hebrew; the Mishna nearly resembles the 
Hebrew ; the style of the Gemara of Jerusalem is Aramaic, while 
the Gemara of Babylon more nearly approaches the Hebrew. 

* The term Chaldee is derived from Dan. 2 : 4 (Septuagint), and was 
introduced by Jerome as a designation of the Aramaic language, but this 
is inappropriate, since the old Chaldgeans, i.e., the Babylonians, never 
spoke Aramaic. Yet the term is used in the Dictionaries of Buxtorf, 
Furst and Gesenius, including the ninth edition : the tenth corrects it. 

tDan. 2:4-7:28; Ezra 4:8-6:18; 7:12-26; Jer. 10:11. The oldest 
Aramaic word in the Bible, Jegar-sahadutha, i.e., the heap of witness, is 
found Gen. 31 : 47. The dialect used in the Old Testament is called the 
Biblical Aramaic. 

t Luke 23 : 38 ; John 19 : 13, 17, 20. 



THE SYRIAC AND THE SAMARITAN. 117 

CHAPTER LXVIII. 

THE SYRIAC AND THE SAMARITAN. 

The Syriac is the Christian and ecclesiastical Aramaic. It 
has an alphabet of its own (one common in MSS., and one for 
printed books). The Syriac literature extends from the second 
to the thirteenth century after Christ. It commences with one 
of the oldest and best translations of the Bible (the Peshitta, 
probably from the second century), and was carried forward 
by Ephraim the Syrian, and by the Nestorians in their theolog- 
ical schools at Edessa and Nisibis. It embraces translations, 
legends, poems, liturgies, and folk-lore. The British Museum 
acquired in 1845 from Coptic convents in Egypt a large num- 
ber of Syriac MSS., mostly patristic, which were published by 
Cureton, Payne Smith, and others. This collection has been 
increased by later discoveries in the East. Among the most 
important documents are fragments of an old, perhaps the old- 
est, translation of the Gospels (called the Curetonian Syriac), 
the Syriac Ignatius, the Festal Letters of Athanasius, the Sy- 
riac Clement of Rome, and the Apology of Aristides (discov- 
ered by J. Rendel Harris on Mt. Sinai in 1889). 

The Syriac is mixed with Greek, Arabic, Persian, and Latin 
words (mostly nouns), owing to its contact with the literature 
of the Greek Church, and to the wanderings of the Nestorians. 

It still exists in altered and decayed forms, and is spoken by 
Jews and Nestorian Christians in Syria, Mesopotamia, and 
Koordistan. It is the sacred language of the Nestorians, Jacob- 
ites, and Maronites. But among the people since the tenth 
century,, it has been more and more supplanted by the Arabic. 

The modern Syriac has a literature of its own, partly native, 
partly the product of Protestant and Roman Catholic mission- 
aries* 

To the same branch belongs the Samaritan language. It is 
a mixture of the Aramaic and vulgar Hebrew, and corresponds 
to the mixed character of the Samaritan people. In many cases 
it embraces the forms of both, e.g., the Hebrew article and the 
Aramaic emphatic state. It has twenty-two letters in the or- 

* See a full list of Syriac literature, old and new, in the Appendix to 

Nestle's Syriac G-rammar (1889), pp. 1-66. 



118 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

der of the Hebrew alphabet j the form resembles the ancient 
Hebrew and Phoenician (not the later Hebrew sqnare character). 
The gutturals are weak and quiescent : hence the difference in 
pronunciation. (Comp. John 4:9.) The Samaritan Literature 
is confined to the Samaritan Pentateuch (which has some critical 
value), the Samaritan Targum (of Nathaniel the high priest, B.C. 
20), Samaritan Chronicles, Liturgies, and Hymns, mostly in MS. 
in the British Museum. 



CHAPTER LXIX. 

THE ASSYRIAN. 

The Assyrian or Assyro-Babylonian language belongs to the 
same branch of Semitic languages as the Hebrew, and resembles 
it much more closely than the Arabic. It was spoken and writ- 
ten, with a slight dialectical difference, in Babylonia and As- 
syria* It continued in use through the Persian and Greek 
periods, but was buried and forgotten for centuries till the 
middle of the nineteenth century, when it was dug up from the 
dust with the ruins of Nineveh and Babylon. Its study is a 
necessity for the specialist in Semitic philology, history, and re- 
ligion. 

The system of Assyrian writing was originally, like the 
Chinese and Egyptian, hieroglyphic and pictorial. The picto- 
rial form gradually faded away, and the pictures became con- 
ventional notations. A few bold strokes sufficed to depict the 
object intended, and in the end the form of the letter bore very 
little or no resemblance to the thing from which it was derived. 

Assyrian is read from left to right ; its characters are com- 
posed of wedges; hence the name cuneiform (from cuneus, 
wedge) j also arrow-headed. There are horizontal, perpendicu- 
lar, and sloping wedges, and also double wedges. The charac- 
ters contain from one to twenty wedges each, and represent 

* Assyria is made prominent in the name because the attention of ex- 
plorers and decipherers was first directed to the palaces and inscriptions 
of the great Assyrian kings, but the Babylonian empire and civilization 
was older than the Assyrian (comp. Gen. 10 : 10, 11), and survived it. 
Nineveh, the capital of ancient Assyria, was destroyed B.C. 607 (so 
Schrader) ; Babylon was captured and its empire overthrown by Cyrus, 
B.C. 538. The Babylonians were priests and built temples ; the Assyrians 
were soldiers and built palaces. 



THE ASSYRIAN. 119 

either syllables or words. There are ideograms, i.e., signs of 
objects or ideas, and phonograms, i.e., signs for sonnds. The 
cuneiform writing is complicated and difficult, but may be 
made easier by transliteration into Hebrew or Latin. The easi- 
est method for beginners is to study the language by the use of 
transliterated texts. 

The decipherment of the wedge-writing was made possible by 
the help of trilingual inscriptions (made under the Persian 
kings), just as the decipherment of the Egyptian hieroglyphics 
was made by the help of the trilingual Rosetta stone discovered 
in 1799. It is due to the genius and progressive efforts of 
Grotefend (who first deciphered a short Persian cuneiform in- 
scription as early as 1802), Bernouf, Lassen, Eawlinson, Talbot, 
Hincks, Oppert, Lenormant, Benfey, Spiegel, Schrader, Haupt, 
Delitzsch, Hilprecht, and others. Oppert wrote the first con- 
nected Assyrian Grammar (1860), and was followed by Sayce 
(1872), and Friedrich Delitzsch (1889). The grammar is simple 
and easily acquired by one acquainted with Hebrew. A large 
majority of the roots are the same as in Hebrew. The verb has 
two forms for the imperfect : the first for expressing a continu- 
ous action, whether past, present, or future (as in Hebrew), the 
second for ordinary narration of past action (like the English 
preterit). 

The Assyrian literature reaches back into the third and fourth 
millennium before' Christ ; the oldest writing of which we know 
was in the time of Sargon I., about B.C. 3800. The Babyloni- 
ans knew the art of writing long before Abraham left Ur in 
Chaldeea, and some have conjectured that the Hebrew alpha- 
bet was derived from the archaic form of the Babylonian signs 
for words and syllables. The history which this literature un- 
folds is a startling revelation to the second half of the nine- 
teenth century, as the recovery of ancient Egypt through the 
decipherment of the hieroglyphics was to the first half of the 
same century. They were brought to light by excavations in 
the Euphrates valley made by Botta (1842-45), Layard (1845- 
51), Rassam (1852-54), George Smith (1873-76), E. de Sarzec 
(1875-80), the American Wolfe expedition led by Ward (1884), 
Peters, Hilprecht (1890), and other scholars of different nations. 

The cuneiform literature is inscribed on bricks, prisms, slabs 
of marble or alabaster, statues, obelisks, colossal bulls, on walls 
of temples and palaces, and on clay tables of every shape. The 



120 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

royal library at Nineveh had at least 30,000 clay tablets with 
texts of all sizes, some in snch minute characters as to require 
a magnifying glass. The inscriptions already discovered ex- 
ceed in compass the Hebrew Bible, and continue to increase in 
number from year to year. They record primitive traditions 
of the creation and the flood, lists and legends of the gods, 
prayers, psalms, grammars, and dictionaries, chronicles of the 
Assyrian and Babylonian Kings, astrological tablets, calendars, 
oracular deliverances, letters, proclamations, petitions, inven- 
tories, receipts, deeds of purchase and sale, bequests, wills ; and 
thus furnish us a faithful picture of the history, geography, re- 
ligion, politics, wars, culture, domestic, social, and public life of 
the Babylonians and Assyrians and the neighboring nations of 
Western Asia. These ancient treasures have been transferred 
to the British Museum, the Louvre of Paris, and other museums 
of Europe, and are thus made accessible to scholars. There is 
a large and growing literature on Assyriology, to which scholars 
of different nations have contributed* To the biblical student 
the most important portions of the cuneiform literature are 
those which run parallel with the sacred narrative. The stories 
of the creation, the deluge, and the tower of Babel are vitiated 
by polytheism, and show by contrast the superiority of the ac- 
counts of G-enesis. The gods themselves emerge from the primi- 
tive chaos, while the Bible raises the one true and living G-od 
above the world which he called into existence by his free, om- 
nipotent will. The Babylonian flood-story agrees with Genesis 
in representing the deluge as a visitation of divine justice, the 
building of a ship, the embarkment of the family of Pir-napish- 
tim (the Babylonian Noah), and all kinds of animals, the perish- 
ing of the race except this family, the grounding of the ship on 
a mountain, the sending forth of a dove (a swallow and a raven), 
the disembarkment, and the sacrifice of thanksgiving. But this 
poem also is disfigured by polytheism, and a quarrel among the 
gods, Bel, Ea, Ishtar, and Anu. The Nimrod of Genesis 10 : 8 sqq. 
has been identified with the Babylonian Gilgames, the chief hero 
of the great epic, in which the Babylonian flood-story forms a 
canto. The Babylonio-Assyrian chronology serves in part as a 

* A complete list of works on modern Assyriology is given by Fried- 
rich Delitzsch (son of the late Franz D.), in the Appendix to his Assy- 
rian Grammar (Berlin, 1889, English translation by A. R. S. Kennedy, 
op. 55-78). 



THE ARABIC. 121 

guide through the perplexity of the more meagre Hebrew dates. 
The history of the Assyrian monarchy from B.C. 900 to the 
destruction of Nineveh is best known from these monuments, 
and illustrates the corresponding accounts of the Books of 
Kings.* 



CHAPTER LXX. 

THE ARABIC. 

The Arabic or Ishmaelite language appears in history about 
four hundred years after Christ. Of its early phases we know 
little or nothing. Its oldest literature consisted of ballads 
handed down by oral tradition. It assumed a vast importance 
in the seventh century through Islam and spread with the Mo- 
hammedan conquest far beyond its original limits. In this 
respect the promise of God to Ishmael to make him a great 
nation (den. 16 : 10 ; 17 : 20 ; 21 : 13, 18) has been strikingly 
fulfilled. The Arabic is said to be spoken by from one hun- 
dred to one hundred and twenty millions of people in the 
Turkish empire, in Egypt, Palestine and Syria, in Algiers, in 
the interior of Africa, in India and Central Asia. It is spoken 
not only by Mohammedans, but also by Christians under their 
government, as the Greeks, Maronites, Jacobites and Armenians. 

The Arabic retained longest the original fullness of the Se- 
mitic forms of speech, but has at length undergone consider- 
able corruption. It is the most opulent and cultivated of the 
Semitic languages, and has the richest literature. It reflects 
the wildness of wandering herdsmen and robbers, and, in its 
cultivated state, the habits of a luxurious and licentious people. 
It reached its flourishing period in the fourteenth and fifteenth 
centuries. It has a greater variety of forms than the Hebrew, 
and is much more difficult to learn. It numbers about 6,000 
roots and 60,000 words, among them scores of terms for camel, 
lion, sivord. De Sacy, one of the greatest Arabic scholars, con- 

* See The Cuneiform Inscriptioyis of Western Asia, by Major-Gen eral Sir 
H. C. Eawlinson, assisted by Edwin Norms, etc. London, 1861-84, 5 
vols. ; Schrader's Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, Giessen, 1883 
(English translation by Owen Whitehouse, London, 1885-88). For an ex- 
cellent summary, see the articles of Prof. Francis Brown (of Union Theo- 
logical Seminary) on Assyriology and the Bible, in the Schaff-Herzog Enc, 
and in Jackson's Concise Dictionary of Religious Knoivlcdge (1889), pp. 51-61. 



122 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

fessed that lie could not read a single page of Arabic poetry 
without a dictionary. The Arabs say that even the angel Ga- 
briel does not know all the roots. In ordinary writing and 
printing, the vowel-points are omitted. 

The Arabic is the sacred language of the Koran, the Moham- 
medan Bible, which is the ultimate standard of linguistic purity 
as well as of faith and practice. It claims to be inspired by 
G-abriel and too sacred to be translated, but has been fre- 
quently translated by Christians (into English by Sale, Rodwell, 
Palmer). It consists of 114 Suras (chapters) and 6,225 verses, 
and is composed in imperfect metre and rhyme. The other 
Arabic literature embraces nearly all departments of knowledge. 

The Arabic in ordinary use is called the modern or vulgar 
Arabic. 

A knowledge of Arabic is indispensable for a missionary in 
Bible lands, and among the Mohammedans in Africa and India. 

The American missionary press in Beirut is creating a Chris- 
tian Arabic literature, including translations of our best hymns, 
of Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, Edwards's History of Redemp- 
tion, and especially a new Arabic version of the Bible by Eli 
Smith and Dr. Van Dyck, completed and printed in the Bible 
* House at New York (1868) — a noble monument of American 
learning and missionary zeal. The Jesuits in Beirut, who are 
very active, have been stimulated by it to another Arabic ver- 
sion (1877), which aims at greater elegance at the expense of 
popularity. 

The Hemyaritic language (from Himyar, an ancient king of 
Yemen) is a Southern Arabic dialect as distinct from the North- 
ern Arabic in which the Koran is written. It is known to us 
from numerous Himyaritic inscriptions of ancient but uncer- 
tain date (probably from the third to the seventh century). 

It is the basis of the ^Ethiopic (called Geez) in Abyssinia, 
which after the conversion of the ^Ethiopians became an eccle- 
siastical and literary language, but has long since died out 
among the people. There remain numerous iEtniopic MSS., 
a translation of the Bible, apostolic canons and constitutions, 
liturgical forms, apocryphal books, notably the Book of Enoch 
(edited and translated by Dillmann, 1851).* 

* See list of literature in the JEthiopisclie Grammatik of F. Prsetorius 
(1886), pp. 21-28. 



CHRISTIANITY AND THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 123 

CHAPTER LXXI. 

THE STUDY OF THE CLASSICS. 

The language of the New Testament brings ns into contact 
with the classical literature of Greece and Rome. The study 
of Latin and Greek is indispensable for every well-educated 
theologian, and will be to the end of time, because the New 
Testament is composed in Greek, and nearly the whole ancient 
and mediseval, with a great deal of the modern, literature of the 
Christian Church, is deposited in those two languages. 

Providence has inseparably connected the fortunes of Chris- 
tianity with ancient classical civilization. Plato and Aristotle, 
Homer and Virgil, Demosthenes and Cicero have become ser- 
vants of the Church and will always be studied by Christian 
philosophers, poets and orators. The literature of Greece and 
the polity of Rome prepared the way for the Gospel. The 
Greek language and the Roman empire were the human forms 
for the divine contents of our religion. 

All thorough knowledge must be genetic, and grow up from 
the roots. The ancient classics represent the human mind at 
its highest point of culture^ which it could attain without super- 
natural aid. They reveal human nature in its strength and 
beauty, but also in its helplessness and inability to attain the 
highest end. Human nature is still the same in all its capaci- 
ties, but it has been enlightened, purified, and ennobled under 
the influence of Christianity. Our modern ideas of God, virtue 
and immortality are vastly superior to those entertained by the 
most enlightened heathen sages on the same subjects. To study 
human nature in its pre-Christian condition (the humanities so 
called), we must go to the classics, and then we shall be better 
prepared to appreciate Christianity. 

CHAPTER LXXII. 

CHRISTIANITY AND THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 

The Greek language, the noblest ever spoken, was at the time 
of Christ the universal medium of international intercourse in 
the Roman empire j as the Latin was in the Middle Ages, the 



124 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

French in the eighteenth century, and as the English in more 
recent times. It was the language of government, law, diplo- 
macy, literature and trade. 

Since the conquest of Alexander the Great, a pupil of Aris- 
totle, — the philosophical world-conqueror — the Greek language 
spread in the East as far as the valley of the Euphrates. It 
accompanied the Roman legions to the banks of the Rhine and 
the pillars of Hercules. It was used extensively by the Jews 
of the Dispersion, especially in Alexandria and Rome ; it was 
spoken even in Palestine, on the western sea-coast, in Samaria 
and in Galilee (" Galilee of the Gentiles "). Greek Jews nocked 
by thousands from all countries to the annual festivals in 
Jerusalem, and aided in spreading their adopted language. 
The Jewish Apocrypha, and the works of Philo and Josephus 
were composed in Greek. Josephus, who was born and educated 
for the priesthood in Jerusalem, wrote, as he says, his History 
of the Jewish War first in Hebrew, " for the barbarians in the 
interior/ 7 afterwards in Greek, "for those under the Roman 
dominion." The Septuagint translation of the Old Testament 
was used in the synagogue long before Christ, and is usually 
quoted from in the New Testament. This fact makes the know- 
ledge of the Septuagint as important as the knowledge of the 
Hebrew Scriptures. Hellenism was a bridge from Judaism to 
Christianity, and a providential preparation for the latter. 

It is almost certain that our Saviour, though usually speaking 
the vernacular Hebrew (Aramaic), occasionally used the Greek, 
as when addressing a mixed multitude, or conversing with the 
Syro-Phoenician woman (yvvrj 'EXXrjvis, Mark 7 : 26), with the 
heathen centurion (Matt. 8:5), with the Greeks who called on 
him (John 12:20), and before Herod and Pontius Pilate. 
Peter's sermon on the Day of Pentecost was probably in 
Greek, which could be understood by nearly all his hearers. 

The Apostles and Evangelists, growing up in a bilingual com- 
munity, must have been more or less familiar with Greek from 
early youth, for they wrote it, not indeed with classical purity 
and elegance, yet with a naturalness and ease which are seldom 
acquired in adult age. Paul received his first training in the 
Greek city of Tarsus, and was acquainted with Greek poets 
such as Aratus (Acts 17 : 28), Epimenides (Tit. 1 : 12) and 
Menander (1 Cor. 15 : 33). 

The Greek was therefore the most natural organ of Christian 



THE DIALECTS OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 125 

literature, even in the Western Church (as we see from the 
Greek writings of Clement of Rome, Hermas, Irenaeus, Hip- 
polytus), and continued to be almost exclusively used until 
Tertullian and Cyprian in North Africa raised the Latin to the 
dignity of a Christian and ecclesiastical language. 

The language of Homer and Herodotus, of Plato and Aris- 
totle, accomplished its highest mission when it proclaimed the 
truths of the gospel of the Saviour of mankind. As the lan- 
guage of the New Testament, it will always have the first claim 
upon the attention of the theologian, even above the study of 
all the Semitic languages combined. 

CHAPTER LXXIII. 

THE DIALECTS OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 

The Greek language has come down to us in a number of 
dialects and sub-dialects. The literature is chiefly deposited in 
four : 

1. The ^Eolic dialect, known from inscriptions and gramma- 
rians, and from remains of Alcaeus, Sappho (the greatest Greek 
poetess, c. B.C. 650), and her friend Erinna. 

2. The Doric is rough but vigorous, immortalized by the 
odes of Pindar and the idyls of Theocritus. 

3. The Ionic, soft and elastic. In this dialect Homer sang 
the Iliad, and Herodotus told his history. 

4. The Attic dialect differs little from the Ionic, unites 
energy and dignity with grace and melody, and is represented 
by the largest literature : the tragedies of JEschylus, Sophocles, 
Euripides, the comedies of Aristophanes, the histories of Thu- 
cydides and Xenophon, the philosophical dialogues of Plato, 
and the orations of Demosthenes. 

The Attic dialect, owing to its literary wealth and the mili- 
tary conquests of Alexander the Great, came to be the popular 
language not only in Greece proper, but also in the conquered 
provinces of Syria and Egypt. By its diffusion it lost much of 
its original stamp, and absorbed a number of foreign words 
and inflections from the Orient. But what it lost in purity, it 
gained in extent and popularity. It was emancipated from the 
trammels of nationality and intellectual aristocracy, and be- 
came cosmopolitan. It grew less artistic, but more useful. 



126 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

5. In this modified form, the Attic Greek received the name 
of the Macedonian or Alexandrian, and also the Common or 
Hellenic language .* It was used by Aristotle, who connects 
the classic Attic with the Hellenic, by Polybius, Plutarch, Dio- 
dorus Siculus, Dio Cassius, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Aelian, 
Herodian, Arrian, and Lucian. 

CHAPTER LXXIY. 

THE HELLENISTIC DIALECT. 

The Hellenic dialect assumed a strongly Hebraizing character 
among the Grecian Jews, who were called Hellenists in distinc- 
tion from the Aramaic-speaking Hebrews.] 

In this modified form it is called the Hellenistic dialect. 

The city of Alexandria, founded by Alexander the Great (B.C. 
332), became the center of the Hellenistic dialect. There differ- 
ent nationalities mingled, and adopted the Greek as their me- 
dium of commercial, social, and literary intercourse. Immense 
libraries were collected under the rule of the Ptolemies, and 
every important work of Egyptian and Oriental learning was 
translated into Greek. 

The literature of the Hellenistic dialect is all of Jewish origin, 
and intimately connected with religion. It embraces the Sep- 
tuagint and the Jewish Apocrypha, which are incorporated in 
the Septuagint, and passed from it into the Latin Yulgate. 
Philo (B.C. 20 to c. A.D. 40), and especially Josephus (A.D. 38 to 
103), the two most eminent Jewish scholars of the first century, 
aimed at Attic purity of style, which should commend their 
theological and historical writings to scholars of classical taste ; 
but after all, they could not conceal the Hebrew spirit and 
coloring. The Hellenistic writings express Jewish ideas in 
Greek words, and carried the religion of the East to the nations 
of the West. 

* 7] kolvt] diaTiEKToc or 'E/l/l^w/c^ SidXeKrog. 

t Acts 6:1. 'WCkr/v, Hellen (John 12:20), is a native Greek, a gentile 
(sometimes used in the sense of a civilized man as distinct from a "bar- 
barian, Rom. 1 : 14, or as a representative heathen, as distinct from the 
Jew, ver. 16). 'EAA^orfc, Hellenist (from eXkijvi^ci, to act or imitate the 
Greek in language or custom, to speak Greek) is a Greek-speaking Jew, 
Acts 6:1; 9 : 21 ; 11 : 20 ; 13 : 43 ; 17 : 4. Comp. pu/uai&Lv, to romanize, 
TrXaruvi^eiv, to follow Plato. Hellenism denotes a type of life and mode of 
speech, but not national origin. The designation Hellenistic for the dialect 
was first introduced by Scaliger. 



THE APOSTOLIC GREEK. 127 

CHAPTER LXXV. 

THE SEPTUAGINT. 

The Greek version of the Old Testament Scriptures, called 
the Septuagint, from the supposed number of translators 
(seventy or seventy-two), was gradually made by Jewish schol- 
ars in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy II., B.C. 285-247, 
and survived the ravages of the Moslem conquerors. It laid 
the foundation for the Hellenistic idiom. It made the Greek 
the vehicle of Hebrew thought. It became the accepted Bible 
of the Jews of the Dispersion, spread the influence of their re- 
ligion among the Gentiles, and prepared the way for the intro- 
duction of Christianity. Thus an " altar was erected to Jeho- 
vah" not only "in the midst of the land of Egypt," as the 
prophet foretold (Isa. 19 : 19, 20, 25), but all over the Roman 
Empire. 

The Septuagint is the basis of the Apostolic or Christian 
Greek. It is a remarkable fact, not yet sufficiently explained, 
that the great majority of direct citations from the Old Tes- 
tament in the New, which amount to about 280, are taken from 
the Septuagint, or at all events, agree better with it than with 
the Hebrew original. 

Jesus himself quotes from the Septuagint, according to the 
Evangelists. The Apostles did it in their discourses, and in 
their epistles. Even Paul, who was educated at Jerusalem and 
well versed in rabbinical lore, usually agrees with the Septua- 
gint, except when he freely quotes from memory, or adapts the 
text to his argument. It has been plausibly suggested that 
they used an Aramaic version or periphrase current at that 
time among the people in Palestine ; but the proof is wanting. 

CHAPTER LXXVI. 

THE APOSTOLIC GREEK. 

Philip Schaff : A Companion to the Gveek Testament and the English 
Version. New York, 1883 ; 4th ed., revised, 1892 (with, facsimiles of ancient 
MSS. and standard editions of the Greek Testament). 

The twenty-seven books of the New Covenant were written 
by Christians of Jewish birth and training, under Roman do- 



128 THEOLOGICAL PROPAEDEUTIC. 

minion, in the Greek language, which was then generally spread 
and understood in the civilized world, but had never before 
been applied to such high themes. 

The language of the New Testament is therefore a peculiar, 
we may say, cosmopolitan, idiom, best adapted for the universal 
mission of the gospel. It is trichotomic : it has a Greek body, 
a Hebrew soul, and a Christian spirit. It is the noble language 
of classical civilization and the venerable language of revealed 
religion. It combines the best elements of the ancient world, 
regenerated and controlled by the spirit of a new religion, and 
made subservient to the highest ends. It is, moreover, so plain 
and simple in its diction that, both in the original and in trans- 
lations, it comes home to the capacity of the common people. 
The New Testament is not a book for scholars only or chiefly, 
but for all classes and conditions of men. 

The inscription on the cross was threefold (John 19 : 20), in 
Hebrew — the language of religion, in Greek — the language of 
civilization, and in Latin — the language of law and power. This 
foretokens the universal mission of Christianity. 

1. The Greek of the New Testament is the Hellenistic dia- 
lect, as already described. 

2. The Hebrew and Aramaic element in this dialect is the 
connecting link between the Mosaic and the Christian dispen- 
sations. It pervades all the writings of the New Testament 
more or less, but chiefly the Gospels of Matthew and Mark, the 
first two chapters of Luke (except the prologue 1 : 1-4, which is 
pure Greek), and the Apocalypse. It appears in the following 
characteristics : 

(a) A large number of Hebrew or Aramaic words, for which 
the classical Greek had no equivalents. 

Examples : Abba (father) j Alleluia (praise ye Jahveh) ; Amen 
(truly) ; Boanerges (son of thunder) j Gehenna (the valley of 
Hinnom, hell) j Golgotha (skull, the place of Christ's crucifixion, 
so called from its conical shape) ; epphatha (be opened) ; jit- 
daize, Judaism, Jewish (from Judah) ; mammon (riches) ; manna 
(the miraculous food of the Israelites in the desert) ; pascha 
(passover) ; rabbi and rabbuni (teacher, doctor) ; sabbath (rest) ; 
Satan (adversary) ; besides a number of proper names, as Jesus, 
Cephas, Jacob, John, Saul, Mary, Martha. 

(b) Greek words with Hebrew (or Christian) meanings. 
Examples : Christ (Messiah) 5 angel ; apostle ; evangelist ; bap- 



THE APOSTOLIC GREEK. 129 

tism; devil (slanderer, for Satan) ; flesh (in the sense of frail, 
mortal, corrupt nature, carnal desire) ; seed (for offspring) ; 
synagogue. 

(c) Hebraistic phrases and modes of construction. 
Examples: from the face (presence) of; to taste death; by two 

and two, i.e. pair- wise ; to be pleased in; to reckon unto; not all 
(for no one) ; to accept the face or person of any one (for to be 
partial) ; son of (in the sense of belonging to). 

(d) The simplicity of style and construction of sentences by 
way of succession and parallelism rather than logical sequence. 
The Sermon on the Mount and the parables have that corre- 
spondence of thoughts and words which forms a peculiar charm 
of Hebrew poetry. 

3. The Roman element i^ subordinate. It consists of thirty- 
one Latinisms, mostly terms of war, politics and business. 
They found their way into the Greek after the Roman con- 
quest, but did not chango its character, like the Hebrew. They 
occur chiefly in Mark's Gospel, which was written in Rome for 
the Romans, but also in Matthew and Luke. 

Examples : centurion (captain of a hundred soldiers) ; legion; 
praitorium (the governor's residence, the camp of the praetorian 
cohort) ; custody; colony; census; mile; tavern; robber; denarius 
(a Roman silver coin, equivalent to an Attic drachma, and worth 
about 16 cents, inaccurately translated penny in the Authorized 
Version). Besides a considerable number of Latin proper names 
(as Agrippa, Cornelius, Clemens, Marc, Paul, Prisca and PriscUla), 
and of places (as Ccesarea, Appii Forum, Tres Tabernce). 

4. The whole language of the Apostles and Evangelists is 
baptized with the spirit and fire of Christianity. It thus 
received a character altogether peculiar and distinct not only 
from the classical, but also from the earlier Hellenistic, Greek. 
The genius of a new religion must either produce a new lan- 
guage, or inspire an old one with a new meaning. The Greek 
was sufficiently flexible to adapt itself to the inspiring and 
transforming influence of the gospel. Classical and Hellenistic 
words in common use were clothed with a deeper spiritual sig- 
nificance : they were transplanted from a lower to a higher 
sphere, from the order of nature to the order of grace, from 
mythology to revelation, from the realm of sense to the realm 
of faith. 

This applies to the very words which express the fundamental 



130 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

ideas of Christianity, as gospel, faith, love, hope, mercy, peace, 
light, life, repentance (change of mind, iierdvoia), conversion, re- 
generation, redemption, justification, sanctification, grace, humility, 
apostle, evangelist, baptism, Lord's Supper, Lord's Day, kingdom 
of heaven. 

Take, for instance, the word gospel (evayyeXiov) : to a Gentile 
Greek it would convey the idea of reward for good news (as in 
Homer), or any kind of good news ; to a Jew, the prophecy of a 
f uture Messiah ; to a Christian, the glad tidings of salvation by 
Christ. The word church (the equivalent for assembly, congre- 
gation, ettKArjoia) passed thr mgh a secular, Jewish and Christian 
state, denoting first a political or any kind of assembly, then a 
synagogue, and lastly the Christian commonwealth and com- 
munion of saints. Faith (niang) means trust or confidence in a 
person or belief in a report ; but in a higher sense, the saving 
faith in Christ. Love (ay dm], which, however, is a purely Bibli- 
cal and ecclesiastical word) rises in the New Testament from the 
idea of natural affection and friendship (cf)i.Xia) to the idea of 
the highest spiritual gift, described by Paul. The Greek terms 
for humble and humility (raireivog, ra-naivor^g, ranetvoaig) desig- 
nated to the proud heathen, meanness and baseness of mind, 
but in the New Testament, a fundamental Christian virtue. 
The apostolic salutation, " Mercy and peace be unto you," is a 
transformation of the idea of physical health and temporal 
happiness, as conveyed in the Greek x al P eLV and the Hebrew 
shalom Tcha, into the idea of spiritual and eternal welfare, so 
that %dpiq and elpfjvr] signify the blessings, objective and sub- 
jective, of the Christian salvation. 

5. The peculiarity of the New Testament Greek, differing 
as it does from the preceding Hellenistic Greek of the Septua- 
gint and Philo, and from the subsequent patristic Greek of 
Ignatius, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and later writers, furnishes a 
strong argument for the genuineness of the Gospels and Epis- 
tles, as productions of the second half of the first century. 

CHAPTER LXXVII. 

PECULIARITIES OF THE NEW TESTAMENT WRITERS. 

Every man has his own style, and "the style is the man." 
No two human beings, yea, no two leaves are precisely alike. 



PECULIARITIES OF THE NEW TESTAMENT WRITERS. 131 

There is unity and endless variety in nature and in history, 
and therein is displayed the beauty of the universe, and " the 
manifold wisdom of God." 

The apostolic writers make no exception. They have their 
idiosyncracies of temper, mode of thought and speech. The 
Holy Spirit, far from destroying these peculiarities, purines, 
sanctifies, strengthens and uses them for the instruction and 
edification of the Church. The diversity of style in the New 
Testament has been felt and incidentally pointed out by the 
Fathers and Reformers ; it was obscured by the mechanical in- 
spiration theory which prevailed in the seventeenth century ; 
it was emphasized by the rationalists at the expense of the es- 
sential harmony ; it is now better understood and appreciated 
as an essential element in the divine-human character and ap- 
plicability of Scripture to the tastes and wants of all classes 
of men 

We must not look in the Greek Testament for classical 
purity of diction and polished elegance of rhetoric. The Apos- 
tles and Evangelists carried the heavenly treasure in earthen 
vessels that the power and grace of God might become more 
manifest. Calvin justly remarks, with special reference to Paul, 
that by a singular providence of God the highest mysteries 
have been committed to us " sub contemptibili verborum liumili- 
tate" that our faith may not rest on the power of human 
eloquence, but solely on the efficacy of the divine Spirit. 
Yet the New Testament has a beauty of -its own, which can 
be appreciated by the illiterate and the scholar alike, and 
which grows upon the mind and heart and will never fade 
away. 

Matthew's style is simple, calm, dignified, majestic. He has 
a fondness for grouping and topical arrangement. He gives 
prominence to the words of our Saviour and strings them 
together as so many precious pearls, one weighty sentence fol- 
lowing another till the effect is overwhelming. He points out 
the fulfilment of prophecy with his phrase Iva ttatjpu&xj to pr}-8ev, 
which occurs twelve times in his Gospel. While he takes his 
quotations freely from the Septuagint, he adapts them to the 
Hebrew when it makes the fulfilment more distinct. He is less 
Hebraistic than Mark, and uses such a genuine classical paron- 
omasia as : " Those wretches he will wretchedly destroy " (21 : 
41). His vocabulary contains about 130 words not found else- 



132 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

where in the New Testament. He alone uses the term " the 
kingdom of heaven" (32 times); he calls God "the heavenly 
Father/ 7 and Jerusalem " the holy city," and " the city of the 
Great King." 

Mark writes the poorest Greek of all the Evangelists, but 
has a peculiar freshness and vivacity, with a number of pictur- 
esque details, which prove his originality and independence, 
his intimacy with Peter and sympathy with his impulsive 
and impetuous temperament. He rushes from place to place, 
from event to event. He records chiefly the miracles which 
excite astonishment, and must have made a strong impression 
upon the Roman reader so fond of displays of conquering 
power. He introduces a number of Latin terms. He quotes 
some words and phrases in the original Aramaic, and char- 
acterizes the acting persons. His favorite adverb is "forth- 
with" or "straightway" (evdt.uc, evOvq), which occurs more fre- 
quently in his Gospel than in all the other Gospels combined, 
and is characteristic of the rapidity of his movement, like the 
American " Go ahead ! " With this is connected his preference 
for the historical present. He loves affectionate diminutives, 
as little child, damsel, little daughter, little dog, etc.* 

Luke, the author of the third Gospel and the Acts, is the 
most literary among the Evangelists. He was an educated 
physician and acquainted with contemporary history. He re- 
fers to the emperors Augustus, Tiberius, Claudius, to the census 
of Quirinius, to the Herodian family, and to the procurators 
Felix and Festus. He has the richest vocabulary among the 
Evangelists, and the largest number of words not occurring 
elsewhere in the New Testament (about 300 in the Gospel and 
470 in the Acts). His medical knowledge appears in the ac- 
counts of miracles of healing j his familiarity with nautical terms 
in the last two chapters of Acts. His account of the voyage and 
shipwreck of Paul, whom he accompanied from Caesarea to 
Rome, has been minutely investigated by an experienced Scotch 
seaman (Commodore James Smith, of Jordanhill), and estab- 
lishes the remarkable fact that Luke, though not a professional 
seaman, was a close and accurate observer of the winds and 
storms, and the management and movements of a ship. He 
furnishes more information of ancient navigation in those two 

* ircudiov, nopaoiov, dvydrpiov, nvvapwv, Ixdvdiov, ordpiov. 



PECULIARITIES OF THE NEW TESTAMENT WRITERS. 133 

chapters than any single document of antiquity .* He uses 
pure Greek where he writes independently, as in the historio- 
graphy preface to his Gospel (1 : 1-4), which compares favora- 
bly in style with the prefaces of Herodotus and Thucydides, and 
surpasses them in combined modesty and dignity* In th^ 
second part of the Acts (the " we sections " so called, beginning 
ch. 16 : 10, and. resumed 20 : 3, and continued to the close), 
he reports as an eye-witness and companion of Paul. But 
his style is Hebraistic in those sections where he depended 
on older sources. This is especially the case in the first two 
chapters of his Gospel, in those charming songs of Zacha- 
riah, Mary, and Simeon, which are the last of the Hebrew 
psalms and the first of Christian hymns. The greater part of 
the Gospel and the first part of the Acts occupy a middle posi- 
tion between classical Greek and Hebrew Greek. There is a 
close resemblance between his style and that of Paul, as appears 
specially in the account of the institution of the Lord's Supper. 
Both are fond of such words as "grace," "mercy," "righteous- 
ness," "knowledge," "the power of the Lord."f Luke alone 
relates the pentecostal miracle, and uses the word " Spirit " or 
" Holy Spirit " again and again. He has a preference for words 
of joy and gladness, in accordance with the cheerful and hope- 
ful tone of his books. His Gospel is the gospel of humanity 
and poetry ; the Acts is the gospel of the Holy Spirit and a 
record of a peaceful spiritual campaign from Jerusalem to 
Borne, marching from victory to victory, and turning even per- 
secution and martyrdom into an occasion of joy and praise. 

Paul has the most characteristic style of all the apostolic 
writers. It reflects the originality and intensity of his mind, 
and the violence of his transition from Judaism to Christian- 
ity, by which the fanatical persecutor became an enthusiastic 
friend. His style is full of force and fire, but rough and incor- 
rect. He wrestles with the language, and tries to subdue and 
to mould it for his purpose. His ideas overflow the ordinary 
channels of speech, and the pressure of his thoughts boldly de- 

* Compare his verbs for sailing : 7r^i«, to sail ; airoKleu, to sail from ; 
j3padvrrteo f to sail slowly ; huntec), to sail away ; Siairteu, to sail through ; 
Kara7r?Jo), to arrive ; vtzoit'Xeu, to sail under the lee ; irapanteo, to sail by ; ava~ 
yojuai, to put to sea ; £7n/c£/U,w, to run the ship ashore, etc. 

t Holtzmann enumerates about two hundred expressions or phrases 
which Luke and Paul have in common, and are more or less foreign to 
the other writers of the New Testament. 



134 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

fies the rules of grammar. He abounds in rapid leaps, sudden 
transitions, grammatical irregularities, antitheses, paradoxes, 
anacolutha, ellipses, oxymora and paronomasias. We may well 
say of his words, with Jerome and Calvin, that they are peals of 
thunder and flashes of lightning.* He " has the style of genius, 
but not the genius of style." Although he was trained in rab- 
binical schools, he departs from the simplicity of the Hebrew, 
and uses long and involved periods, which might be broken up 
into half-a-dozen English sentences, as Eph. 1 : 1-14. He is dia- 
lectic and argumentative, reasoning now from Scripture, now 
from experience. He frequently uses logical particles.f He dis- 
claims classical elegance and calls himself "rude in speech," 
though not " in knowledge." Nevertheless he rises at times to 
the pinnacle of lofty eloquence and poetic beauty. The triumph- 
ant pgean of faith (in the closing verses of the eighth chapter of 
Romans), and the seraphic ode on love (in the thirteenth chap- 
ter of First Corinthians), have no parallel in literature ancient 
or modern, and are alone sufficient to prove that his genius 
was under the power of divine inspiration. 

The Epistle to the Hebrews is more pure and correct in style 
than the Epistles of Paul, and this difference is one of the chief 
arguments against its Pauline authorship. It has 168 words 
not occurring elsewhere in the New Testament. 

John differs in his style from Paul as a placid lake does from a 
rushing torrent, as a gentle breeze from the storm, as an an- 
them of peace from a trumpet of war. His style is clear, calm, 
serene, simple and childlike. Yet in the uncompromising dis- 
courses of the Lord against the Pharisees, and in the Apocalypse, 
we hear the Son of Thunder. The Apocalypse is the most He- 
braistic of all New Testament books, and was probably written 
before the destruction of Jerusalem, about twenty years before 
the fourth Gospel. But the Gospel, though purer in diction, is 
conceived in a Hebrew spirit, which dominates the Greek form. 
This fact diminishes the difficulty of ascribing the two books to 
the same author, considering the difference of matter and the 
prophetic basis of the Apocalypse. John uses few particles ; 
his favorite one is " therefore " (ovv), which signifies temporal 

* Jerome : "Non verba, sed tonitrua." Erasmus : " Tonat, fulgurat, me- 
ras flammas loquitur Paulus," and: "Quid unquam Cicero dixit eloquen- 
tiusf" Calvin: " Fulmina sunt, non verba." 

t ovv, apa, apa ovv, yap, el yap, el 6i, ovketl, tl ovv, oh /udvov 6i, aXka. 



HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF HELLENISTIC GREEK. 135 

sequence and providential connection. He advances not by a 
dialectical process of argumentation, like Paul, but by a succes- 
sion of assertions which have the force of self-evident truths. 
He is a mystic, not a scholastic ; a seer, not a reasoner. His 
sentences are short and weighty. His vocabulary is limited, 
but includes words of the profoundest import, as " life," " light," 
" truth," " love," which occur again and again, and are con- 
trasted with "death," "darkness," "falsehood," "hatred." He is 
" verbis facillimus, sensu difficittimiis." He alone calls Christ the 
" Logos " (the Interpreter or Revealer of the Godhead), " the 
Only Begotten Son," " the Light of the world," " the Bread of 
life," " the Good Shepherd," " the Vine " — designations which 
have ever since guided the Church in her devotions. He calls 
the Holy Spirit " the Paraclete " or Advocate, who pleads the 
cause of believers here on earth, while Christ, who is also 
a "Paraclete," intercedes for them before God's throne in 
heaven. He gives us the inside view of the life of Christ, and 
introduces us into the holy of holies. 



CHAPTER LXXVIII. 

HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF HELLENISTIC GREEK. 

The study of Hellenistic, as distinct from classical, Greek is 
modern. The Greek fathers were more concerned about the 
doctrinal contents than the form and language of the Scripture. 
The Latin fathers and the mediaeval schoolmen were either en- 
tirely ignorant of Greek or had only an elementary knowledge 
of it, and depended on the Latin Vulgate, which the Council of 
Trent afterwards put on a par with the original. 

The Revival of Letters raised the classical Greek from 
oblivion, and prepared the way for the Reformers, who had a 
good general knowledge of Greek, but cared little for the differ- 
ences of dialects. Beza and Henry Stephens first observed the 
differences between the classical and Hellenistic idioms, and 
saw in the Hebraisms an element of beauty. 

The mechanical theory of inspiration which soon followed 
the Reformation, confounded inspiration with dictation, and led 
to the notion that the Greek of the New Testament must be 
perfect to the extent of grammatical accuracy and classical 



136 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

purity. Hence arose the controversy between the Purists and 
the Hebraists. It was carried on chiefly by Dutch and German 
scholars till the end of the seventeenth century, when the 
Hebraists gained the ascendency. 

Georg Pasor (Professor of Greek at Franeker, d. 1637; 
prepared a little lexicon of the New Testament, which was often 
republished, and left also in manuscript a grammar of the New 
Testament, which was published at Groningen, 1655. 

A Swiss divine, Caspar Wyss (Professor in the Theological 
College of Zurich, d. 1659), made the first attempt to collect and 
classify the peculiarities of the New Testament idiom, in his 
Dialectologia sacra, Tigur., 1650. 

Salomon Glasius, a Lutheran divine at Jena (d. 1656), 
wrote a Philologia sacra, in which he paid much attention to 
the Hebraisms of the New Testament. Then followed a long 
interval, till Ph. H. Haab, a Swabian pastor (d. 1833), appeared 
with a Hebrew-Greek Grammar of the New Testament (1815), 
which is very imperfect and marks no real advance. 

The founder of the New Testament Grammar on the basis 
of the modern classical philology is Georg Benedict Winer 
(Professor at Leipzig, d. 1858). His Grammatik des Neutesta- 
mentliclien Spracliidioms (1st ed., Leipzig, 1822 ; 7th ed. by 
Liinemann, 1867 ; two excellent translations by Moulton, and 
by Thayer) marks an epoch in Biblical philology. He traced the 
Hellenistic peculiarities to fixed principles and reduced them 
to a system. He gave a new impulse to a sound grammatical 
exegesis. The rich fruits of his labors can be seen in the com- 
mentaries of De Wette, Meyer, Weiss, Alf ord, Trench, EUicott, 
Lightfoot. His work is still an authority on the subject, but 
behind the latest results of textual criticism. Besides Winer, 
we must mention Alex. Buttmann's Greek Grammar of the New 
Testament (1859, English translation by Jos. H. Thayer, 1873) ; 
S. A. Green's Handbook (London, 1885) ; and Edwin Hatch's 
Essays in Biblical Greek (Oxford, 1889). 

The best dictionaries of the Greek Testament are those of 
W. Grimm (in Latin, 3d ed., 1887) ; Cremer (Biblisch-theolo- 
gisches Wb'rterbuch, etc., 5th ed., 1887, English translation from 
the 2d ed., 1880) ; E. Robinson (English, originally based on 
Wahl's Claris, 1836, 1850, 1879) ; Jos. H. Thayer (1886, based 
on the 2d ed. of Grimm, 1879, with valuable additions and sup- 
plements and with constant reference to the latest recensions of 



THE SUB- APOSTOLIC GREEK. 137 

the text by Teschendorf, Westcott and Hort, and the Revised 
English Version of 1881). 

Concordances of the Greek Testament by Bruder (4th ed., 
1887), and Hudson, revised by Ezra Abbot (1885).* 



CHAPTER LXXIX. 

THE SUB-APOSTOLIC GREEK. 

The Apostolic Fathers so called, who are supposed to have 
been personal disciples of the Apostles, and wrote between the 
end of the first and the middle of the second century (Clement 
of Rome, Polycarp, Ignatius, Barnabas, Hermas, and the anony- 
mous author of the Didache), belong already to a new generation 
of Christians and differ in style as well as in depth, vigor and 
originality from the Apostles. Their Greek has no more the 
informing Hebrew spirit and coloring of men born and bred 
in the synagogue. It breathes the atmosphere of a native 
Christian community after the distinction between Jewish and 
Gentile converts had disappeared. 

The Didache or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, discovered 
and first published by Bryennios (1883), comes, of all the sub- 
apostolic writings, nearest to the New Testament in its style 
and vocabulary, and this is a strong argument for its great 
antiquity (probably before the close of the first century), and its 
Jewish-Christian origin (probably in Palestine or Syria). Its 
style is simple, natural, sententious, like that of the Sermon on 
the Mount, and shows traces of Hebrew parallelism, antithetic 
and synthetic. Its vocabulary embraces 552 words, of which 
504 are found in the New Testament. Among these are a 
number of Hebraisms, such as "not all" (ov nag, lo col) for no 
one (ovdeig) ; "to accept the person" (npooonov Xau[3dveiv) for 
to favor, to show partiality; the designation "Preparation 
day" (napaofCEvrj) for Friday. f 

* For a full list of helps to the study of the Greek Testament, see 
Sehaff's Companion, pp. 1-4. 

t See Schaff : The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, pp. 95-113 (New 
York, 3d ed., 1889). 



138 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

CHAPTER LXXX. 

THE ECCLESIASTICAL GREEK. 

The ecclesiastical or patristic and Byzantine Greek is impor- 
tant for the stndent of ancient Church History. It is the 
language used by Christian authors during the Roman and 
Byzantine periods till the fall of Constantinople (1453). It is 
the common Greek dialect of the time and country of the 
writers, but modified by the influence of the Septuagint and 
the New Testament. It includes a number of technical theo- 
logical terms, which grew out of the theological controversies in 
the Nicene and Post-Nicene ages, and refer mostly to the 
doctrine of the trinity, the incarnation, and the person of Christ. 

Examples : ovoia, the divine essence or substance j vnooraoig 
or TrpoouTcov, the divine person (Father, Son, and Spirit) j 
tvavOpuTTTjoig and evodptcuoig (incarnatio), the incarnation j 
ofioovoiog, equal in essence, dfioiovoiog, similar in essence, and 
erepoovoiog, of a different essence (the first was the Athanasian 
or orthodox, the second the Semi-Arian, the third the Arian 
word for expressing the relation of Christ to God the Father) 5 
Xoyog doapfcog, the Logos before the incarnation ; Idiorrjg denotes 
the property of each person of the Trinity, dyewrjoia that of the 
Father, yevvrjoia that of the Son, enaopevoLq that of the Holy 
Spirit j rrepix^prjOLg (inexistentia, inhdbitatio) is the term for the 
intercommunion of the three persons of the immanent Trinity ; 
KOLvuv'ia ldiG)jjLdTG)v (communicatio idiomatum), the communion 
of attributes of the person and of the two natures of Christ 5 
dedvOpuTcoc;, the God-Man; tieoTOKoc;, bearing God (Deipara), or 
Mother of God, applied to the Virgin Mary. 

The. best Greek writers among the fathers are Origen, Euse- 
bius, Athanasius, Basil, Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of 
Nyssa, Chrysostom, Cyril of Alexandria, John of Damascus, 
and Photius. The later Greek commentators and theologians 
were mostly imitators and compilers. 

The same dialect was also used by a large number of secular 
writers, and by the Byzantine historians, who give a vast 
amount of information on the manners, customs, and commerce 
of the Eastern Empire from the foundation of Constantinople 
to the conquest of the Turks (1453). 



THE ECCLESIASTICAL GREEK. 139 

After the removal of the seat of empire to Constantinople or 
New Rome, the Greeks were called Romans, sometimes Eastern 
Romans, to distinguish them from the Western or genuine Ro- 
mans ; while the national term Hellenes was generally used by 
Christian writers in the same sense as pagans or idolaters. 

During the reign of Constantine the Great and a short time 
after, the Latin was the language of the court, of legislation and 
administration. In the reign of Justinian, the Latin disap- 
peared from the East, but left its impress upon the Greek in 
many words and phrases. The Teutonic invasions, being 
merely transient, had no effect upon the Greek. But the Sla- 
vonians (Scythians), who since the eighth century had settled in 
the depopulated provinces of continental and peninsular Greece, 
commingled with Greek blood, adopted the Greek language and 
religion, and gave to it a considerable number of nouns, names 
of places, and the diminutive ending -itza. 

The principal helps for the study of patristic Greek are : J. 
Casp. Suicer (Schweizer, Professor in the Carolinum at Zurich, 
d. 1684, of whom it was said that " he understood more Greek 
than all the Greeks taken together ") : Thesaurus ecclesiasticus 
e Patribus Greeds, Amsterd., 1682, 2 vols. fol. ; two enlarged edd., 
1728 and 1746, with supplements. Carolus du Fresne (Sieur 
Du Cange, an eminent French scholar and expert in mediaeval 
philology and history, 1610-1688) : Glossarium ad Scriptores 
medice et infimce Grcecitatis, Lugd., 1688, 2 vols. fol. He wrote 
also a Glossarium medice et infimce Latinitatis (1678), best ed. by 
Henschel, Paris, 1840-50, in 7 vols. 4to ; revised by L. Favre, 
1884-87, 10 vols. 

For the Byzantine Greek, E. A. Sophocles : Greek Lexicon 
of the Roman and Byzantine Period (from B.C. 146 to A.D. 1100), 
Boston, 1870 j revised ed. by Dr. Jos. H. Thayer, New York, 
1887. 



SECOND SECTION: BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 



CHAPTER LXXXL 

IDEA OF BIBLICAL ABCILEOLOGY. 

Biblical Archaeology * or Biblical Antiquities is a systematic 
description of the external and internal condition of the coun- 
tries and nations in which the Holy Scriptures originated and 
to which they refer. It must give a clear and full view of the 
state of civilization, the public and private life, the manners 
and customs of the Israelites from the beginning to the close 
of the apostolic age. 

The art of the archaeologist t consists in so grouping together 
the various aspects of ancient Jewish life and society with its 
base and surroundings as to present a complete and faithful 
picture, and to transfer the student to the time and situation of 
the authors and actors of the Bible. 

Biblical Archaeology is essentially Hebrew Archaeology, since 
the Bible was mainly written by Hebrews and in Palestine. 
But inasmuch as the Jews themselves came in contact with 
other nations — the Egyptians, Phoenicians, Assyrians, Chal- 
daeans, Medes, Persians, Greeks and Romans — these must all 
be noticed incidentally as far as is necessary for the illustration 
of the Bible. 

Archaeology is indispensable for the material understanding 
of the Bible, as grammar is indispensable for its verbal under- 
standing. At the same time it gathers its information from 
the Bible itself and brings it into systematic order. It is both 
a preparation for exegesis and the result of exegesis. In this 
way archaeology and exegesis mutually illustrate and supple- 
ment each other. The same applies to Biblical Isagogic. 

* ' ' Apxaioloyia, from apxcuoQ, old, and loyog. It corresponds to the Latin 
Antiquitates ( Alter •thumsivissenschaft, or Alter thiimer). 
VApxacoX6}>os,antiquariiis. 



PARTS OF ARCHEOLOGY. 141 

To Biblical Archaeology in Exegetical Theology corresponds 
Christian or Ecclesiastical Archaeology in Historical Theology. 
Sometimes they are comprehended under the common name of 
" Sacred Archaeology," as distinct from Secular Archaeology. 

CHAPTER LXXXII. 

PARTS OF ARCHEOLOGY. 

The boundaries of Biblical Archaeology are not clearly and 
uniformly defined. Josephus embraces under it the whole 
Jewish history down to the beginning of the rebellion against 
the Romans ; while Ewald, more appropriately, but too nar- 
rowly, confines it to the laws and customs of the Hebrew 
theocracy and treats it as a mere appendix to Jewish history. 

I. In its widest sense, Archaeology comprehends the follow- 
ing divisions : 

1. Biblical Geography. 

2. Natural History of the Bible. 

3. Domestic and Social Life of the Jews. 

4. Civil and Political Institutions. 

5. Ecclesiastical or Religious Institutions, rites and ceremo- 
nies. 

6. History of the Jews till the destruction of Jerusalem (A.D. 
70) or down to the second destruction under Hadrian (135). 
Schiirer excludes the older history ; he begins with the Macca- 
baean period, and concludes with the age of Hadrian. 

7. History of Biblical Times in the Old and New Testaments 
(Biblische Zeitgeschichte), i.e., the contemporary history of the 
Jews and Gentile nations with which they came in contact. But 
this section cannot be clearly distinguished from the sixth, and 
coincides with it in part. Schneckenburger and Hausrath em- 
brace under the History of New Testament Times (Xeidesta- 
mentliche ZeitgescJiichte) both the Jewish and heathen history 
in the time of Christ; Schiirer confines it to the Jewish 
history. The History of Old Testament Times embraces the 
contemporary history of the Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians, 
Persians, Greeks, and Romans. 

Some of these departments are so large as to require separate 
treatment. The sixth and seventh divisions belong to history 
rather than to archaeology, but the departments are intertwined 



142 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

II. Archaeology, in the narrower and proper sense, should be 
confined to the domestic, social, civil and religious life, laws 
and institutions of the Jews. It describes the results of Jewish 
history, not its growth — history at rest, not history in motion. 
The latter belongs to Historical Theology. 

CHAPTER LXXXIII. 

SOURCES OF ARCHEOLOGY. 

1. The Canonical Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments 
are the chief and most authentic source. 

2. The Jewish Apocrypha, especially the Books of the 
Maccabees, are the connecting link between the Old and New 
Testaments. They explain the religious and political condition, 
and many customs and usages of the Jews at the time of Christ. 

3. The writings of Philo of Alexandria (d. about A.D. 40), 
and of Josephus (a Jewish priest, b. A.D. 37, at Jerusalem, d. 
at Rome after 103). The Antiquities of the Jews, by Josephus,* 
is invaluable and indispensable for the contemporaneous his- 
tory of the Jews down to A.D. 66. It was written about 94, 
with the apologetic aim to inspire the Greeks and Romans with 
more respect for his countrymen. His History of the Jewish 
War is the only authentic source for that important event, the 
destruction of Jerusalem, which closes the history of the Jewish 
theocracy. 

4. The Talmud (n^Sri, Doctrine, Corpus Doctrinoe) gives in- 
formation on the Jewish theology and jurisprudence at the time 
of Christ. It consists of two parts, the Mishna (i.e., Repetition, 
the Second Law) and the Gemara (i.e., Supplement, Conclusion, 
viz., of rabbinical wisdom). The Mishna is a digest of rabbin- 
ical traditions before and after Christ concerning the Mosaic 
law, and was reduced to writing in its present form by a 
wealthy and influential rabbi, Jehudah the Holy, Patriarch of 
Tiberias at the close of the second or early part of the third 
century. As it is very concisely written, it required a com- 
mentary, and this led to the Gemara. Of this there are two, 
the Palestinian Gemara, compiled about A.D. 390, and the 
Babylonian Gemara, which is much larger and was completed 

* 'lovdalnTj 'Apxaioloyla, in twenty Books. Numerous editions and trans- 
lations. See Schiirer, Vol. L, pp. 56 sqq. 



BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 14c 

about A.D. 500 under the supervision of the patriarch of 
Babylon. The Mishna is of more importance for Biblical 
Archaeology than the Gemara. 

5. The Greek and Roman authors are of little account. 
When they speak of the despised Jews, they mostly borrow 
from Josephus and mix errors with facts. So Tacitus and 
Justinus. On the geography of Palestine, Strabo furnishes 
some information ; on natural history, Pliny. 

6. Reports of Eastern travelers from Jerome (who lived 
many years in Bethlehem) to our own age, especially their' de- 
scriptions of natural scenery and the manners and customs of 
the people, which have undergone little change from the age of 
the patriarchs and prophets. 

7. Monumental sources, written and unwritten. These are 
becoming more and more important as discoveries and re- 
searches in Bible lands progress. The monumental evidences 
for Old Testament history from the tombs and excavated cities, 
and hieroglyphic and cuneiform inscriptions, outweigh critical 
conjectures and skeptical objections. 

(a) For the Jews : ruins of eleven old synagogues (all in 
Galilee), walls, bridges, aqueducts, tombs, coins, inscriptions, 
and the triumphal arch of Titus in Rome, adorned with a 
delineation in relief of the spoils of the temple at Jerusalem. 

(b) For the surrounding nations, and indirectly for the Jews : 
Phoenician remains (inscriptions) ; Egyptian monuments and 
hieroglyphic inscriptions ; Assyrian, Babylonian and Persian 
monuments, and cuneiform inscriptions. 

CHAPTER LXXXIV. 

BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Biblical Geography is a description of Bible Lands, namely : 

1. Egypt, the cradle of Israel. 

2. The Sinaitic Peninsula, the school of Israel. 

3. Palestine, the final home of Israel, the native land of 
Christ and the Apostles, and of the Christian Church. 

The Bible Lands are the best commentary on the Bible, as 
the Bible is the best guide-book in Bible Lands. The Land 
and the Book mutually illustrate and confirm each other. 
Palestine has appropriately been called (by Renan) " the fifth 



144 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Gospel/ 7 lacerated and torn, but still legible. It furnishes the 
illustrations to the other four Gospels. It is nature's frame- 
work to the life of Christ. Palestine was sufficiently secluded 
to keep the Jews from contaminating contact with idolatrous 
nations, and yet sufficiently central between Asia, Africa and 
Europe and on the Mediterranean to illuminate the whole 
world with the gospel. 

Topography is a part of geography, and deals with special 
localities. It is of uncommon interest in Jerusalem, involving 
the disputed question as to the site of the holy sepulchre. 

In a wider sense, Biblical Geography touches also upon 
Arabia, Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, 
Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy as far as Rome. The Bible 
brings us into contact with the whole ancient world. 

Every student should visit Bible Lands, if he can, and 
finish his theological education there. They will make a 
deeper impression and be of more practical use to him for ser- 
monizing and the religious instruction of youth than many 
commentaries. Palestine is a ruin, but an eloquent ruin, sur- 
rounded by sacred memories. Travel in the East takes away 
much of the poetry, but deepens and enlivens the sense of the 
reality. 

CHAPTER LXXXV. 

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE BIBLE. 

(Physica Sacra.) 

The Natural History of the Bible gives an account of the 
climate, the natural productions, minerals, plants, and animals 
of Palestine. 

The Bible is full of allusions to nature, and turns its familiar 
scenes and products into symbols of ideas and vehicles of moral 
instruction. 

The Parables of Christ rest on the correspondence between 
nature and man, between the material and the spiritual uni- 
verse, between creation and redemption, and derive lessons of 
wisdom from the common objects and events of life. 

The Bible most frequently mentions the rose, lily, vine, olive, 
fig — among plants ; the dove, eagle, vulture — among birds ; 
the horse, ox, sheep, lamb, goat, ass, camel, dog — among 
animals. 



ARCHEOLOGY PROPER. 145 

Hare names : The " unicorn " (Isa. 34 : 7 ; Job 39 : 9 ; Ps. 
29 : 6) is an unfortunate translation of the Authorized Version 
for "wild ox' 7 (Revised Version). The " behemoth" in Job 
(40 : 15-24) is probably the hippopotamus or river-horse of 
Africa. The " leviathan " (Job 41 : 1 sqq. ; Ps. 74 : 14 ; Isa. 27 : 1) 
is the crocodile or some other sea-monster. 



CHAPTER 

ARCHAEOLOGY PROPER. 

Archaeology in the strict sense, as denned in chapter lxxxii, 
includes : 

1. Domestic and Social Antiquities : an account of the 
tents and houses of the Hebrews, their dress and personal or- 
naments, their food and meals, their family relations and 
usages, wedding ceremonies, burial of the dead, slavery, social 
intercourse, nomadic life, agriculture, trade and commerce, 
weights and measures. 

2. Civil and Political Antiquities : the patriarchal, the re- 
publican, and the monarchical forms of government, the ad- 
ministration of justice, Hebrew penalties, war and military 
affairs. 

3. Religious or Sacred Antiquities (Sacra). This is the 
most important part, as religion lay at the foundation of Jew- 
ish society and the Jewish state, which was a theocracy. Here 
belongs a description of sacred places (the tabernacle, the tem- 
ple, the synagogue) ; sacred seasons (sabbaths, new moons, an- 
nual festivals) ; sacred persons (priests, Levites, prophets, 
scribes) 5 sacred things (altar, furniture of the temple, priestly 
garments) ; sacred acts, rites and ceremonies (sacrifices, obla- 
tions, purifications, circumcision, the passover, etc.). 

The Tabernacle, the Temple, the Synagogue, and the Mosaic 
worship in its typical import, are described in numerous mono- 
graphs. 

Hebrew psalmody may be treated here in connection with 
public worship, but belongs also to Biblical Introduction. 

The religion of idolatrous nations with whom the Jews came 
in contact must not be forgotten, especially the service of Baal 
and Moloch. 

4. The Science and Art of the Hebrews were closely con- 



146 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

nected with their religion, but may also be separately discussed. 
Domestic and mechanical arts, the art of writing, music and 
musical instruments, and poetry. 

5. Jewish Theology includes an account of the sects of the 
Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes, which originated in and 
after the Maccabasan period, and of the two rival schools of 
Hillel and Shammai, who lived shortly before Christ, and fur- 
nish some parallels to his teaching. But the influence of these 
rabbis was confined to Judaism, while the teaching of Christ 
has regenerated and benefited the world. He is the founder, 
not of a school or party, but of a spiritual kingdom for all 
mankind. 

CHAPTER LXXXVII. 

HISTORY OF ARCHAEOLOGY. 

In the history of Biblical Archaeology, we may distinguish 
four periods, with special reference to the geography of Pales- 
tine : 

1. The period of devout pilgrimage, monastic tradition and 
superstition, from the pilgrimage of St. Helena (the mother of 
Constantine the Great) and the discovery of the supposed holy 
places, down to the seventeenth century. 

Eusebius (d. 340) is the father of Biblical geography (as well 
as church history) by his work on the names of places men- 
tioned in the Scriptures. Jerome translated it into Latin.* 

From the Middle Ages we have a large number of Itineraries 
of Christian pilgrims, monks and crusaders. 

2. In the seventeenth century several Dutch divines, espe- 
cially Bochart (d. 1667) and Reland (d. 1718), laid the foun- 
dation for a systematic and critical treatment of Archaeology. 
Bochart's Hierozoicon (1663, Rosenmuller's ed., 1793, 3 vols.) is 
still the best work on Biblical zoology. Reland produced a 
standard work on Palestine down to the era of the Crusades.t 
YiTRrNGA wrote the best book on the Synagogue (1696). A 
vast collection of older monographs on Biblical Archaeology is 

* Uepl tcjv to7tiko)v bvo/uaruv tuv ev Ti) 6eia ypafyy, or Onomasticon Urbium et 
Locorum Scripturce Sacrce, first printed by the Jesuit Bonfrere (Paris, 1631) ; 
best edition by De Lagarde, Onomastica Sacra, I., 207-304 (Gottingen, 1870 
and 1887). 

t Antiquitates Sacrce Yeterum Hebrmorum (Trajecti-ad-Bhenum, 1708, 
etc.) ; Palcestina ex monumentis veteribus illustrata (Traj., 1714, etc.). 



HISTORY OF ARCHEOLOGY. 147 

contained in Ugolino's Thesaurus Antiquitatum Sacrarum 
(Venice, 1744-69, 34 vols. fol.). 

.3. The period of independent critical research and scientific 
travel began with the geography of Carl Ritter of Berlin, the 
founder of scientific geography (d. 1859),* and his friend, Ed- 
ward Robinson of New York, the pioneer of Palestine explora- 
tion.t Dr. Robinson (d. 1863) was accompanied in his first 
journey by Dr. Eli Smith, an American missionary in Syria, 
who was quite familiar with classical and vulgar Arabic. He mi- 
nutely examined the Scripture localities, trusting only his own 
eyes and the Bible, and disregarding to an excess of independ- 
ence the monastic traditions. But he could examine only the 
surface of Palestine. 

4. A new period began with the excavations of subterranean 
Jerusalem and other interesting localities by the labors of the 
"Palestine Exploration Fund," established in England, 1865, 
the American Palestine Exploration Society founded in New 
York in 1871, and a similar German Society founded in 1878. 
The results of the English Society are published in Quarterly 
Statements, in an illustrated volume, The Recovery of Jeru- 
salem (1872), and in the Map of Palestine with text (1880). 
The American Exploration Society has investigated the lands 
east of the Jordan, but stopped operations in 1878, leaving the 
whole fieltl to the English. The German Society issues a peri- 
odical. The discovery of the Moabite Stone by Klein in 1868 
was independent of the English society. 

Many discoveries are yet to be made in Jerusalem and the 
lands east of the Jordan, as well as in the Sinaitic Peninsula. 
New and fresh arguments and illustrations of the Bible will 
yet be dug out from the sacred soil trod by our Saviour and 
covered with the rubbish of ages. 

The Egyptological and Babylonio-Assyrian discoveries and 
researches are still in progress, and throw side-lights on Bibli- 
cal archaeology and history. 

* The Palestine part is in Die Erdkunde, Vols. XIV.-XVIL, revised 
edition, 1848-55. English translation by Gage, New York, 1866, 4 vols. 

t Biblical Researches in Palestine and Adjacent Regions, in 1838 and 1852 ; 
3d ed., Boston, 1867, 3 vols. Also in German. His Physical Geography 
of Palestine, 1865, is a posthumous work, and only a portion of a com- 
plete physical, historical, and topographical history of the Holy Land, 
which he had projected. 



148 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

CHAPTER LXXXVIII. 

LITERATURE OF ARCHEOLOGY. 

See the accurate lists of archaeological works in the first part of Schurer's 
Geschichte des jiidischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Ghristi (1890), pp. 4 sqq. 

1. General works on Archaeology : Jahn (1817-25) ; Rosen- 
muller (1818-20) ; De Wette (1814, 4th ed. by Rabiger, 1864) ; 
*Ewald (1844, 3d ed., 1866, translated); Saalschiitz (1855) j 
*Keil (1857, 2d ed., 1875); Fish (1876); Filion (1883) ; Bissel 
(1888) ; *Schiirer (2d ed., 1890, 2 vols., Eng. transl. ; by far 
the best for later Jewish history). 

2. Bible Dictionaries of Winer, Kitto, revised by Alexander, 
Smith, Schenkel, Riehm, Zeller, Schaff (also the Biblical articles 
in the general theological encyclopedias of Herzog, and Mc 
Clintock and Strong). These works contain archaeological in 
formation in convenient alphabetical arrangement. 

3. The literature on Bible Lands and the geography of Pales- 
tine : * Reland ; * Ritter (new ed., 1850-55) ; * Robinson (1867) ; 
*'K.v. Raumer (1835 and ? 60) ; * Tobler (1845-77); Van de 
Velde (1854); * Stanley (1856 and >61); De Vogue (1865-77, 
2 vols.) • *W. M. Thomson (new ed., 1880, in 3 vols.) ; * Tris- 
tram (1865, '76 and '81) ; Bovet (1864) ; Fnrrer (1865) ; Schaff 
(1878 and .'89); Orelli (1878) ; Conder (1878) ; Merrill (1881) ; 
Guerin (1882, sqq., with magnificent illustrations) ; Pierotti 
(1882) ; * Stapfer (1885) ; Hull (1886) ; Dawson (1888).* 

4. Topography of the Holy Land : Tristram (1876). Topog- 
raphy of Jerusalem and the Temple : George Williams (1849, 
2 vols.) and Tobler (1854, 2 vols.). 

5. Handbooks for Travelers in Bible Lands : Murray and 
Badeker. 

6. Maps of Palestine in all good Bible Dictionaries. Map of 
Western Palestine by Conder and Kitchener, in 26 sheets, each 
sheet accompanied by a memoir showing the scientific results 
of the survey undertaken by the Palestine Exploration Fund, 
London, 1880. 

* A careful list of books on Palestine to 1850 in Hitter's Erdkunde, Vol. 
XV., pp. 33 sqq. ; another down to 1856, in Appendix I. to Vol. II. of Rob- 
inson's Biblical Researches, pp. 533-555, and a third to 1866 in Dr. Tobler's 
Bibliotheca Geographica Palestine (Leipzig, 1867), pp. 265 ; Supplement, 
1875. Tobler, a practical traveler of Switzerland who visited Palestine 
four times, enumerates more than one thousand (1086) writers on Pales- 
tine from A.D. 333 to 1866, of which he examined no less than eight hun- 
dred and ninety-four. 



THIRD SECTION: BIBLICAL ISAGOGIC. 

(Historico- Critical Introduction to the Bible.) 



CHAPTER LXXXIX. 

NATURE OF ISAGOGIC. 



Biblical Isagogic is a historico-critical Introduction to the 
Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments. It is a literary 
history of the Bible from its origin to the present time. 

It embraces a summary of preliminary information which is 
necessary or useful for the understanding of the Scriptures in 
whole or in part. Its limits are not clearly defined, but it in- 
cludes all the questions which are generally discussed in an in- 
troduction to the several books, concerning the authorship, the 
authenticity and integrity of the text, the time and place of 
composition, the aim of the writer, the class of readers, and the 
principal commentators. 

Names : TZiaayayuy?) elg rag deiag ypacpdg, Isagoge, or Introductio in Scrip- 
turam sacram; first used, the Greek by Adrianus in the fifth, and the Latin 
by Cassiodoms in the sixth century, but first properly naturalized in the 
Reformed Church, since 1643, by Andrew Rivetus, who wrote Isagoge sive 
Introductio generalis ad Scripturam s. V. et A 7 ". T.; and in the Lutheran 
Church, since 1767, by J. G. Carpzov (Introductio ad libros canonicos Bibli- 
orum). The Germans, since Michaelis and Eichhorn, call it Isagogxk, or 
Einleitung, or Historisch-Kritische Einleitung in die lieil. Schrift. The Eng- 
lish name chosen by the translators of German works and by Home and 
Davidson is Introduction. The term Isagogic (in conformity with Apolo- 
getic, logic, Rhetoric) is more scientific, but not current, although the adjec- 
tive isagogical is used in the sense of introductory. Some have proposed 
the name Canonic, but this is only a part of the introduction, viz., the his- 
tory and doctrine of the Canon. 

Definition : Formerly Isagogic was a name for an arbitrary collection 
of all sorts of antiquarian and critical information about the Bible, with- 
out any regulating principle or definable limits. Owing to the difficulty 
of fixing the boundaries, De Wette denies to Isagogic the character of a 
theological science properly so called. Hupfeld, in an essay on the method 
of the so-called Introduction to the Bible (1844), has first clearly defined 
it as a historical science. Reuss, Bleek, Weiss, Holtzmann, and others have 
followed this method. Yet, after all, it is no part of historical theology, 
but belongs to exegesis, and must be treated throughout as contributory 
and preliminary to it. 



150 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

CHAPTER XC. 

OBJECT AND VALUE OF ISAGOGIC. 

The object of Isagogic is to give a clear and comprehen- 
sive view of the character of the Bible as a body of literature 
and of the historical situation out of which it has grown, and 
from which alone it can be scientifically understood and in- 
terpreted. 

The information must be derived from all contemporary liter- 
ature and history connected with the Bible, but chiefly from 
the Bible itself; and so far the Introduction presupposes 
exegesis, while at the same time it prepares the student for 
exegesis. 

Ps value consists in bringing together, under convenient 
heads and in systematic order, a complete view of the position 
and influence of the Bible in the history of literature and civ- 
ilization, and in facilitating the understanding of its several 
parts. 

The origin and history of the Bible should be investigated 
like that of all other books, without any preconceived theory 
on inspiration and the canon ; yet the result of the investiga- 
tion, if conducted in the right spirit, will sustain the claims of 
the Bible. It will be found, to be the most remarkable phe- 
nomenon in literature, the Book of books, the Book of God as 
written by holy men under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit 
for the good of all mankind. It can never die or grow old. It 
bears translation into all languages without losing its vitality 
and beauty. It is as universal as the race. It is a perpetual 
and omnipresent literary miracle with ever-expanding influence 
and power. 

According to the division of the Bible into the Old and New 
Testaments, Biblical Introduction is divided into Introduction 
to the Old Testament and Introduction to the New. Each may 
be treated separately. 

CHAPTER XCI. 

METHOD AND ARRANGEMENT OF ISAGOGIC. 

I. The older and usual, but mechanical method, is to divide 
Isagogic into General and Special. The first treats of the 



1 HISTORY OF ISAGOGIC. 151 

names, order, division, collection, language, text, translation 
and interpretation of the Bible as a whole ; the second of the 
origin, authenticity, integrity, etc., of the several books of the 
Bible. This method was introduced by Rivet. Eichhorn, Ber- 
thold, Hug and De Wette begin with the general part'; Schott, 
Credner, Reuss, and Bleek reverse the order. 

II. The historical method grows out of the modern concep- 
tion of Introduction as a literary history of the Bible. It 
brings out more clearly the gradual development of the records 
of revelation, and their fortunes in the Christian Church. 

CHAPTER XCII. 

PARTS OF ISAGOGIC. 

Isagogic in the widest sense of the term includes the follow- 
ing divisions : 

I. The Origin of the several books of the Bible. This is Isa- 
gogic in the strict sense of the term and embraces the contents 
of " Special n Introduction, so called. It presents the growth of 
Biblical literature as a living organism in connection with the 
history of the Jewish theocracy and the primitive Christian 
Church. 

II. History of the Canon (Canonic). The collection of 
these books into a body of sacred literature, distinct from all 
other books, and constituting the rule of faith and life for 
those who accept them as divinely inspired. 

III. History of the Text : 1, the written text ; 2, the printed 
text. 

IV. History of Translations ancient and modern. 
V. Hermeneutic, or the Science of Interpretation. 

VI. History of Interpretation. 

These topics are large and important enough to be treated 
separately. The History of Interpretation may be made a part 
of Hermeneutic. 

CHAPTER XCIII. 

HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ISAGOGIC. 

Biblical Introduction as a science is a child of modern criti- 
cal research, but the material was prepared for centuries. It 



152 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

has been cultivated largely by rationalists, who treat the Bible 
like any other book, in a purely literary and antiquarian inter- 
est, but also by orthodox and evangelical scholars who employ 
the art of criticism for the vindication of the Bible. 

1. Imperfect preparations : Augustln : De Doctrina Chris- 
tiana; Cassiodorus : De Institut. divinarum Scripturarum; 
Santes Pagnlnus of Lucca (d. 1541) : Isagoge ad 8. liter as 
(1538) ; Andr. Rivetus : Isagoge ad Script, V. et K T. (1643) ; 
J. H. Hottinger : Claris Scripturce (1649) ; J. H. Heidegger : 
Enchiridion Biblicum (1681 and often) ; and other works on 
special topics. 

2. The first critical work on Isagogic is the Histoire Critique 
du Vieux Testament by Richard Slaion, a liberal Roman Cath- 
olic (priest of the Oratory, d. 1712). It appeared at Paris, 
1678, was seized and nearly destroyed, but reprinted at Amster- 
dam, 1680 and 1685 (English translation, 1682). It was fol- 
lowed by a Critical History of the Text of the New Testament 
(Rotterdam, 1689), and of the Versions of the New Testament 
(Rotterdam, 1690 ; English translation, London, 1692). He 
first divided the Old Testament Introduction from that to the 
New. He was not trammeled by the rigid inspiration theory 
of the Protestant scholastics, which was unfavorable to a free 
investigation of the text ; but yet he had a propensity to novel 
opinions which endangered also the theory of his own church. 
Hence his books were suppressed in France at the recommenda- 
tion of Bishop Bossuet. 

Calmet, a very learned and industrious French Benedictine 
(1672-1757), wrote a commentary on the Bible, and a very pop- 
ular Historical and Critical Dictionary of the Bible (Paris, 1730, 

4 vols.), which was translated into Latin, German, and English. 
Best English ed. by Charles Taylor, 9th ed., London, 1847, 

5 vols. 

3. Since that time Isagogic has been cultivated in whole or 
in part chiefly by Lowth, Semler, Herder, Griesbach, Eichhorn, 
Berthold, De Wette, Credner, Hengstenberg, Havernick, Keil, 
Guericke, Bleek, Reuss, Baur, Hilgenfeld, Wellhausen, Grau, 
Strack, Weiss, Holtzmann, Zahn — among Germans ; Scholten, 
Rovers, Kuenen — in Holland; Home, Ayre, Tregelles, Sam. 
Davidson, Salmon, Westcott, Hort, Dods, Sanday, Driver — 
among English writers ; also by Roman Catholic scholars, 
as Jahn, Hug, Scholz, Reusch, Langen (the last two joined 



BIBLICAL CRITICISM. 153 

the Old Catholic movement in 1870), Von Aberle, Schanz, 
Kaulen. 

4. The latest and best general books on Old Testament In- 
troduction : Bleek (1860, 4th ed., revised by Wellhausen, 1878, 
5th ed., 1886 ; English translation by G. H. Yenables from the 
2d ed., 1869, 2 vols.) ; Reuss (1881, 2d ed., 1890) ; Kell (3d 
ed., 1873) ; ReusCh (Old Cath., 4th ed., 1870) ; Strack (1883) ; 
Kuenen (Dutch, 2d ed., 1885) ; Martex (French, 1887) ; Kll- 
patrick (London, 1891) ; Driver (Edinburgh and New York, 
1891) ; Cornill (1891) ; Ch. H. H. Wright (1892). 

On the New Testament : Bleek (1860, 4th ed. by Mangold, 
1886); Reuss (1842, 6th ed., 1887; English translation by 
Houghton, Boston, 1884, 2 vols.) ; von Hofmanx (ed. by 
Volck, 1881) ; L. Schulze (1883 and 1885) ; Holtzmann (1885, 
3d ed., 1892) ; Weiss (1886, 2d ed., 1889 ; English translation, 
Edinb. 2 vols.) ; Salmon (London, 1885, 4th ed., 1890) ; Godet 
(in course of preparation, 1893, 3 vols., French and English). 

CHAPTER XCIV. 

BIBLICAL CRITICISM. 

Criticism is a method of investigation for the purpose of as- 
certaining the truth. It inquires into the nature and credibil- 
ity of the sources of information, and determines the value of 
traditional opinions. It may be destructive or constructive or 
both. It is a sifting process which separates truth from error, 
and fact from fiction. It is necessary for all true progress in 
exegesis and history, or any other department of science. 

Biblical criticism, in the technical sense, is divided into 
textual or verbal, and literary or historical criticism. 
They are also distinguished as lower and higher criticism ; 
but this must not be understood in an invidious sense ; for the 
one is just as important and as difficult as the other, and re- 
quires the same amount of minute and painstaking labor. 
Textual criticism comes first in order, and lays the basis for 
literary criticism. The former deals with the text or the form 
of the Scripture ; the latter, with its contents, its literary char- 
acter and historical surroundings. 

Both are comparatively recent departments of Biblical study, 
and have been cultivated chiefly by Protestant scholars in 



154 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Germany, Holland and England. Protestantism favors origi- 
nal investigation. Romanism is hampered by traditionalism, 
whenever the Church has made a positive deliverance, as on 
the extent of the canon, and the authority of the Vulgate. But 
a number of Eoman Catholic scholars, as Simon, Jahn, Hug, 
Scholz, Vercellone, Martin, have taken a prominent part in 
these studies. 

CHAPTER XCV. 

TEXTUAL CRITICISM — ITS AIM. 

The object and aim of textual criticism is to ascertain and 
restore, as far as possible, the original text of the Scripture, 
from all accessible documentary sources. It has nothing to 
do with sectarian notions or private opinions as to what the 
Biblical authors might or ought to have written, but simply 
with what they actually did write. It does not enter into the 
domain of interpretation, but furnishes a solid foundation for 
the exegete. It requires patient attention to minute details, 
microscopic accuracy and judicial impartiality. 

The number of textual critics is very small. These devout 
and reverent scholars took the deepest interest in the letter 
as well as the contents of the Bible, and devoted years of study 
to the restoration of the purity of the text. 

CHAPTER XCVI. 

NECESSITY OP TEXTUAL CRITICISM. 

The need for this study arises from the loss of the Hebrew 
and Greek autographs, and the vast number of readings. These 
are inevitable in the multiplication of any book by printing, 
and still more so by transcribing ; for manuscripts are not so 
easily corrected as printed books, which have the benefit of re- 
peated proof-readings. 

God has watched with special providence over the essential 
integrity of the Bible, but he has not chosen to exempt it, by 
a perpetual miracle or series of miracles, from the common fate 
of human compositions, and to endow the copyists, translators 
and printers of the Bible with infallibility. He wastes no 
miracles. The command, " In the sweat of thy face shalt thou 



CLASSES OF TEXTUAL VARIATIONS. 155 

eat bread," applies to intellectual and spiritual as well as physi- 
cal labor. 

For all practical purposes the English or any version of the 
Bible, on which most readers have to depend, is just as good 
as the original autographs, which are irrecoverably lost. The 
Apostles used great freedom in their quotations from the Old 
Testament, and thereby taught us an important lesson. " The 
letter killeth, the spirit giveth life " (2 Cor. 3 : 6). 

CHAPTER XCVII. 

CLASSES OF TEXTUAL VARIATIONS. 

Errors of transcription may be intentional, or accidental. 
The former are exceedingly rare in Biblical manuscripts ; for 
transcribers and translators had too much respect for the Bible 
to venture upon wilful changes and mutilations. Marcion's 
mutilated Gospel of Luke is an isolated case and was generally 
condemned. 

But accidental and unintentional errors are exceedingly 
numerous. They crept in very early. The further we go 
back, the greater was the freedom and carelessness of tran- 
scribers. Irenseus, who wrote about A.D. 170, mentions the 
remarkable difference of reading in the Apocalyptic num- 
ber, 666 or 616 (Rev. 13 : 18), which he found in old copies. 
Origen complained of the corruption of the text about the 
middle of the third century. Jerome reports that in his day 
there were as many distinct forms of the text as codices of the 
Latin Testament (tot pcene exemplaria quot codices), and that the 
text of the Gospels which were most frequently copied was in 
great confusion (apud nos mixta sunt omnia). It was only 
after the fifth century that the text assumed a settled and 
stereotyped form. 

Textual variations arose partly from inadvertence, partly 
from mistakes of the eye in reading or the ear in hearing, 
partly from corrections of the copyist. They are either omis- 
sions, or insertions, or substitutions. 

Omissions are rare ; for purchasers wanted complete copies. 
They occur mostly in cases of Jiommoteleuton, or similarity of 
ending, i.e., where a line or sentence closes with the same word 
as the preceding one (e.g., 1 John 2 : 23). 



156 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Insertions or additions were made chiefly from parallel pas- 
sages (in the Gospels), or from Old Testament quotations, or 
from lectionaries and liturgies, or from love of paraphrase, or 
from marginal notes of transcribers, or from oral tradition. 
The most important cases of this kind are the doxology in the 
Lord's Prayer (Matt. 6 : 13), the notice about the pool of Be- 
thesda (John 5 : 3, 4), the section of the woman taken in adul- 
tery (John 7 : 53-8 : 11), the concluding verses of Mark 
(16 : 9-20), and the passage of the three witnesses in heaven 
(1 John 5 : 7, 8). The last is not found in any old Greek manu- 
script or version or patristic quotation, and is entirely omitted 
in the Revised Version ; while the other passages are retained, 
with a marginal note. The Septuagint has large additions in 
Esther and Daniel. 

Substitutions are due to resemblances of words in spelling 
or pronunciation, or to the aim of harmonizing. Examples : 1 
John 1 : 18 (6eog or vide) j Luke 2 : 14 (evdorcia or evdoKtac) • 
Rom. 5 : 1 (exo^ev or e^Wjuev ) ; Acts 20 : 28 ( Oeov or Kvpiov ) • 1 
Tim. 3 : 16 (Oeog or og) j Rev. 17 : 8 (tcalnep eoriv or ftal napearai). 

CHAPTER XCVIII. 

THE NUMBER AND VALUE OF VARIOUS READINGS. 

We can only make an approximate estimate of the number 
of variations. 

In the Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible a careful examiner 
has numbered 1314 different readings of value. Of these only 
147 affect the sense or have any theological importance. But 
when we compare the Hebrew original with the Greek trans- 
lation, the differences are much more frequent and important, 
and imply many omissions and additions. 

The manuscripts of the Greek Testament are far more nume- 
rous than those of the Hebrew Bible and the Septuagint, or any 
other ancient book, and present a correspondingly large num- 
ber of variations. Mill in his time (1707) counted 30,000 
readings ; Scrivener in our age (1874) estimated their number 
to be " at least fourfold that quantity." * Others run the sum 
up to 150,000. These include differences in the order of 

* Introduction to the Criticism of tfte New Testament (Cambridge, 2d ed., 
1874) ; repeated without change in the third edition (1883), p. 3. 



THE NUMBER AND VALUE OF VARIOUS READINGS. 157 

words, in spelling and other trifles, which are ignored in the 
printed editions. But even this large number is much less in 
proportion than the 30,000 readings in the few copies of 
Terence. 

The number of variations differs in the different books. Less 
care was bestowed upon doubtful books (the Antllegomena) than 
those which were generally received by the Church (the Homo- 
logumena). Dr. B. Weiss found in the five remaining uncial 
manuscripts of the Apocalypse, which contains about 400 
verses, nearly 1,650 departures from the received text (210 in 
A, 110 in C, over 515 in a, the rest in P, and B Apocalypse).* 
The Apocalypse was the last among the apostolic writings which 
received canonical sanction, at least in the Eastern Church (it 
is omitted in the Laodicean canon of 363) ; hence the large 
number of variations in the oldest manuscripts. The settle- 
ment of the canon after the fourth century led to a systematic 
emendation and unification of the text. 

The vast majority of variations in the Greek Testament, at 
least nineteen out of twenty, are analogous to trifling typo- 
graphical errors, and of no consequence whatever ; of the re- 
maining twentieth part not more than about 400 affect the 
meaning ; of these less than 100 involve any doctrinal or ethi- 
cal question ; and not one of them invalidates any revealed 
doctrine or moral duty, but only diminishes the number of 
proof -texts for an article of faith which is sufficiently sustained 
by other undoubted passages. 

The abundance of variations, far from unsettling the general 
integrity of the text, furnishes us the material for restoring it 
with approximate certainty to a far greater degree than is the 
case with any classical author of antiquity. There is no need 
of resorting to uncertain conjectures and emendations. The 
true reading is sure to be preserved in the great mass of varia- 
tions.t 

* See his minute and careful analysis, Die Johannes- Apocalypse, in Geb- 
hardt and Harnack's Texte und Untersnchungen znr Geschichte der altchristl. 
Literatur, Bd. VII., No. 1, 1891 (225 pp.)- Weiss gives, in conclusion, an 
emended text of the Apocalypse, based chiefly upon the Codex Alexandri- 
nus (A), and more nearly agreed with that of Westcott and Hort than that 
of Tischendorf , who in his eighth edition follows too much the Sinaitic 
Codex (jc). 

t See the remarkable judgment of Richard Bentley, one of the greatest 
classical scholars and critics, and the concurrent testimonies of Tischen- 
dorf, Tregelles, Hort, and Ezra Abbot, quoted in Schaff's Companion to 
the Greek Testament, pp. 176 sqq. 



158 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Nevertheless the variations in the Bible text are sufficiently 
important to call for a vast amount of patient learning and re- 
search. In the Word of God nothing is indifferent. Rever- 
ence for the Bible and a desire to enjoy its primitive purity 
and integrity should be the strongest motive for the critic. 
This was the case with the great and good John Albright Ben- 
gel. When he first learned, as a student, of the variety of 
readings in the Greek Testament, he was somewhat disturbed ; 
but this very fact led him to a careful investigation, which 
strongly confirmed him in his faith and secured him a place 
among the first textual critics and exegetes. "If the Holy 
Scriptures," he says, " which have been so often copied, were 
absolutely without variations, this would be so great a miracle 
that faith in them would be no longer faith. I am astonished, 
on the contrary, that from all these transcriptions there has not 
resulted a greater number of various readings.' 7 * 



CHAPTER XCIX. 

TEXTUAL CRITICISM OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 

The textual criticism of the Old Testament is as yet in its 
infancy. If it aims simply at the restoration of the Masoretic 
text, the task is much easier than the criticism of the Greek 
Testament. But if it aims at a restoration of the ante-Maso- 
retic or primitive text, it is more difficult. 

The restoration of the Masoretic text is confined to an ex- 
amination of the Hebrew MSS. dating from the Masoretic 
period, which extends from the sixth to the twelfth centuries. 

The Jewish rabbis, called Masorets or Traditionalists (from 
masora or massora, tradition, masar, to hand down), especially 
those of the school of Tiberias, searched the letter of the Script- 
ures most diligently, thinking that in them they had eternal 
life ; while they were blind to the Christ of whom they bear 
witness (John 5 : 39)* Yet their bibliolatry or letter- worship 
served a good purpose in securing uniformity. They watched 
with scrupulous fidelity and unwearied patience over the pur- 
ity of the text, registering every letter and the frequency of 
its occurrence, marking the variations (Jceri, the word read, 

* See an interesting account of this chapter in his life, the biography 
of Burk (Stuttgart, 1831), p. 200. 



SOURCES OF THE OLD TESTAMENT TEXT. 159 

and hetMb, the word written), and supplying the vowel points, 
punctuation and accents. They introduced also the versicular 
division of the Old Testament ; while the division into chap- 
ters is of Christian origin (from the thirteenth century). The 
versicular division of the poetical books existed much earlier, 
perhaps from the beginning, in accordance with the rhythmical 
structure and the parallelism of members (the lines being called 
otixoi, versus). The versicular division of the New Testament 
dates from the middle of the sixteenth century (1551). 

The written Masora embodies the results of the rabbinical 
labors on the text of the Hebrew Scriptures. It was originally 
preserved in distinct books, but was afterwards transferred to 
the margin of the Bible MSS., mostly with large curtailments 
(hence the Masora parva, an abridgment, as distinct from the 
Masora magna). Its most valuable part is the collection of the 
marginal Keris, or the readings which the Masorets themselves 
approved as correct, and derived either from other MSS. or 
from conjectures. The number of Keris, according to Elias 
Levita, who spent twenty years in the study of the Masora, is 
848, but the Bomberg Bible contains 1171, the Plantin Bible 793. 

There is only one recension of the Hebrew text, the Maso- 
retic ; and hence there is no difference in the text of the Jew- 
ish and Christian, Roman Catholic and 'Protestant editions of 
the Hebrew Bible. 

Best edition of the Masoretic text by Gr. Baer (with preface 
by Delitzsch), Lipsiee, 1869 sqq. 

The most complete collection of the Masoretic material was 
made by Ginsburg, a converted Jewish scholar and member of 
the British Old Testament Revision Company.* 

CHAPTER C. 

SOURCES OF THE OLD TESTAMENT TEXT. 

1. The chief source of the Hebrew text of the Old Testa- 
ment are the manuscripts. They represent, with few varia- 
tions, the Masoretic text, the older ones in its simpler form, 
the later ones with the full Masoretic vocalization and accent- 
uation. The oldest known codex, containing the Prophets 

* The Massorah, Compiled from Manuscripts, Alphabetically and Lexically 
Arranged. London, 1880-86*, 4 vols. 



160 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

with the Babylonian punctuation, is from the year 916 j the 
oldest complete codex is from 1009 (both in the Imperial Library 
of St. Petersburg). The former has been republished in fac- 
simile (1876). The Spanish MSS. are generally the most accu- 
rate, the Italian come next, the German last. There are rich 
collections in the libraries at Oxford, Paris, Parma, and St. 
Petersburg. 

The number of Hebrew MSS. cannot be accurately ascer- 
tained. Kennicot (Oxford, 1776) mentions 630, of which he 
thoroughly collated 258, the remainder in part; De Rossi 
(Parma, 1784-88) collated 751. Strack (Prolegomena Critica in 
Y. T., Lips. 1873) gives a full account of lost and extant co- 
dices known at this time* 

2. The other sources for the Hebrew text are the old trans- 
lations made before the Masora, and the Samaritan Pentateuch 
(known in Europe since 1620). Of the translations the 
most important are the Greek Septuagint, the Chaldee Tar- 
gums, the Syriac Peshitta, and the Latin Vulgate. 

Valuable attempts to improve the Masoretic text by means 
of the versions have been made by Wellhausen (Text der Bilcher 
Samuels, 1871), Cornill (Das Buck des Propheten Ezechiel, 1886), 
and by Driver ( The Hebrew Text of the Books of Samuel, Oxford, 
1890, following in the line of Wellhausen). Much more remains 
to be done. 

CHAPTER CI. 

THE HEBREW ORIGINAL AND THE GREEK SEPTUAGINT. 

There is a remarkable difference between the Hebrew Script- 
ure and the Greek Version of Alexandria, made two hundred 
years before Christ, called the Septuagint (from the Jewish 
fable of the seventy or seventy-two inspired translators). This 
causes the chief difficulty of reconstructive textual criticism, 
which has scarcely begun. It opens up a vast field of future 
labor. 

The Septuagint is twelve centuries older than the oldest ex- 
tant Hebrew manuscript; it was in common use among the 
Hellenistic Jews ; it is usually quoted by Christ and the Apos- 

* Harkevy (St. Petersburg, 1884) has described about 50 newly dis- 
covered manuscripts and fragments, but they are not genuine. 



THE HEBREW ORIGINAL AND THE GREEK SEPTUAGLNT. 161 

ties in the New Testament, even where it differs from the He- 
brew. These facts give it an authority almost equal, if not 
superior, to the Hebrew text as we now have it from the hands 
of Jewish rabbis, who certainly cannot claim an infallible au- 
thority. 

The Jews before Christ believed that the Septuagint was as 
literally inspired as the Hebrew text, even with all the addi- 
tions, but they abandoned this view when the Christians made 
use of the Septuagint against them. Philo of Alexandria says 
(in his Life of Moses) : " We look upon the persons who made 
this Version, not merely as translators, but as persons chosen 
and set apart by divine appointment, to whom it was given to 
comprehend and express the sense and meaning of Moses in 
the fullest and clearest manner." 

The early Christian fathers, who were nearly all ignorant 
of Hebrew — Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Augustin and others — 
adopted this pious superstition, which cannot stand the test of 
the slightest examination. The Septuagint still holds its au- 
thority in the orthodox Greek Church ; but in the Latin Church 
it gave way to the Vulgate, which the Council of Trent placed 
on a par with the original, thus substituting one superstition 
for another. 

The Septuagint was made by different persons at different 
times, without an attempt to revise and harmonize their work. 
Hence it is very unequal in the different books. In the Penta- 
teuch (according to the testimony of Jerome, who compared it 
with the Hebrew manuscripts of the fourth and fifth centuries) 
it best agrees with the Hebrew text, and is most valuable. 
Ezekiel, also, is well translated, but Isaiah, Job, the Psalms, and 
most of the prophetical books are imperfectly rendered. The 
Septuagint is often too literal and obscure, as in Ezekiel and 
Koheleth, or too loose, periphrastic and prosy * 

With all the imperfections of the translation, the compara- 
tive study of the Septuagint and Hebrew is instructive and 
stimulating. 

More serious than the grammatical faults of translation are 
the differences of matter, which have a bearing upon the orig- 
inal text. The Septuagint disagrees with the Hebrew (accord- 

* Looking at these defects, Luther expressed a low estimate of the Sep- 
tuagint, and Zwingli correctly said that Isaiah found an unworthy trans- 
lator. Modern scholars entertain a higher opinion. 



162 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

ing to Bleek) in more than 1000 places where the Masoretic 
text presumably preserves the original reading ; but in many 
other places it has preserved an older and better reading, and 
decides between the variations of the existing manuscripts. 
The Revised English Version mentions some on the margin. 

The greatest differences exist in the texts of Jeremiah, Job, 
Proverbs, Daniel and Esther. In Job, whole verses of poetry 
are omitted which the translator probably could not under- 
stand • while the Prologue and Epilogue of that book are en- 
larged. The Greek Esther contains numerous additions, which 
Jerome in his Vulgate has placed at the end of the book. 
Daniel is poorly translated and has several apocryphal addi- 
tions, namely, the prayer of Azarjah and the song of the three 
children in the furnace (after 3 : 23, in the Vulgate 4 : 24-90), 
the story of Susanna (ch. 13 in the Vulgate), and the story of 
Bel and the Dragon (ch. 14). 

In the antediluvian and patriarchal chronology the differ- 
ences are irreconcilable. The Vulgate follows the shorter He- 
brew chronology (which was adopted by Ussher and incorpo- 
rated in the English Bible), while the majority of Protestant 
scholars (Vossius, Jackson, Hales, etc.) give the preference to 
the chronology of the Septuagint, which extends the length of 
the period from the Creation to the Flood, about 1000 years. 

Editions : The text of the Septuagint was very often copied, 
and underwent so many corruptions that it is almost hope- 
lessly confused. It is contained in the Vatican, Sinaitic, and 
Alexandrian uncials (with many breaks), and in a large num- 
ber of cursive MSS., representing three or four types or recen- 
sions, Palestinian, Egyptian, Syrian and Constantinopolitan. 
There are four primary printed editions, the sources of smaller 
editions, namely, the Complutensian (1514-17, copied in the 
Antwerp Polyglot), the Aldine (1518), the Roman (the Sixtina, 
1587, after the Vatican MS., followed by many editions), and 
the Oxford (by Grabe, 1707-20). All very imperfect. The edi- 
tion of Holmes and Parsons (Oxford, 1798-1827, 5 vols, fol.) 
has a large apparatus, but is behind the age. The Alexandrian 
Codex (A) was published in a splendid facsimile edition at Lon- 
don (1881-83) in three volumes. The Vatican Codex (B) was 
published in quasi-facsimile by Vercellone and Cozza (Rom. 
1869-72, Vols. I -IV.), and has since been reproduced by pho- 
tography (Rom. 1891). 



SOURCES OF THE TEXT OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 1G3 

Manual editions by Leander van Ess (1824), and * Teschen- 
dorf (Leipz. 1850, 7th ed., 1887, with valuable additions by 
Prof. Nestle, of Tubingen, 2 vols.). 

The want of a truly critical edition, which is an essential 
prerequisite for textual criticism, has long been felt, and is not 
yet satisfied, but preparations on a large scale have been made 
by Lagarde of Gottingen, who edited the recension of the 
presbyter Lucian of Antioch (d. 311), but was interrupted by 
his death (Dec. 22, 1891) from finishing his task* 

The most recent and convenient edition is by Professor 
Swete of Cambridge, which is based upon the Vatican Codex, 
with readings from the Sinaitic and Alexandrian Codices.f 



CHAPTER CII. 

SOURCES OF THE TEXT OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

Scrivener (died 1891) : A Plain Introduction to tlie Criticism of the New 
Testament, 3d ed., Cambridge, 1883 (pp. 712). Gregory: Prolegomena to 
Teschendorf's eighth critical edition, Leipzig, 1884 ; second part, 1890 
(third part not yet published). For a fuller list of works and manuscripts, 
see Schaff : Companion to the Greek Testament, New York, 4th ed., 1892 
(pp. 82-85, 102, 133, 134). 

The text of the New Testament is derived from three 
sources : Greek manuscripts, translations, and patristic quota- 
tions. 

A. Greek Manuscripts. These are divided into uncials, 
written in capital letters, and cursives, written in running hand. 

I. The Uncial MSS. are older — from the tenth up to the 
fourth century — and hence more valuable. They are desig- 
nated, for brevity's sake, by the capital letters of the Latin alpha- 
bet with the addition of Greek and Hebrew letters. The correc- 
tions are marked by one, two, or three stars, according as they 
date from the first, second, or third hand. Constantine the 
Great ordered the preparation of fifty MSS. of the Bible for 
the churches of Constantinople. The number of uncials found 

* Librorum Veteris Testamenti Canonicorum. Pars prior. Gro3ce. Gottin- 
gen, 1883, p. 541. The historical books, with the text only, without the 
critical apparatus. The second volume has not appeared. 

t The Old Testament in Greek, according to the Septuagint. Cambridge 
(University Press), 1887, 1891, 2 vols. It is to be followed by a larger edi- 
tion. Hatch and Redpath, Concordance to the Septuagint, Oxford, 1892 sq. 



164 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

so far amounts to about 110, but most of them are fragment- 
ary ; only one is complete (the Codex Sinaiticus). 

The oldest and most important uncials are the following : 

1. Codex Sinaiticus («, Aleph), discovered by Tischendorf 
in the convent of St. Catharine on Mt. Sinai in the desert, 
1859, now in the Imperial Library of St. Petersburg, published 
in quasi-facsimile style, 1862. From the age of Constantine 
the Great, about 330. Written on fine parchment, four columns 
to a page. The chief basis of Tischendorf s eighth edition. 

2. Codex Alexandrlnus (A), of the fifth century, pre- 
sented by Cyril Lucar of Constantinople to King Charles I. 
(1628), preserved in the British Museum, and published in 
photographic facsimile, 1879. The first uncial used by critics. 
In the Gospels it approaches the textus receptus. It has sev- 
eral gaps (the first 24 chapters of Matthew, 2 chapters of John 
and 8 chapters of 2 Corinthians are lost), but adds, after the 
Apocalypse, the Epistle of Clement of Rome to the Corinthians 
(defective), and a fragment of a homily. 

3. Codex Vaticanus (B), from the age of Constantine, as 
old as the Sinaitic, and more carefully written, on very thin 
vellum in clear and neat uncial letters, in three columns, pre- 
served in the Vatican Library, for a long time almost inaccessi- 
ble, but at last published in photographic facsimile, 1889. It 
breaks off at Heb. 9 : 14 in the middle of the verse (with the word 
KaOa/piet). The last chapters of Hebrews, the Pastoral Epistles, 
Philemon, and the Apocalypse are lost. It is upon the whole 
the most valuable MS. and the chief basis of the text of Lach- 
mann, Tregelles (as far as they knew it), and Westcott and 
Hort. 

4. Codex Ephraim (C), a codex rescriptus (used for the 
works of Ephraim, d. 373, which are written over it), dating 
from the fifth century, hardly legible and very defective, pre- 
served in the National Library of Paris, and edited by Tischen- 
dorf, 1845. 

5. Codex Bez^] or Cantabrigiensis (D), once in the pos- 
session of Beza (who procured it from a convent in Lyons), 
and presented by him to the University of Cambridge. It dates 
from the sixth century, contains only the Gospels and Acts, 
with a Latin version, and is full of errors, eccentricities and 
bold interpolations. It presents the Western text. 

6. Codex Claromontanus (D 2 ), for the Pauline Epistles, 



SOURCES OF THE TEXT OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 165 

with a Latin Version, a supplement to Cod. D, and of the same 
age. Preserved in Paris, and edited by Teschendorf, 1852. 

II. The Cursive MSS. superseded the more costly uncials, 
except for splendid copies. They are written on cotton paper, 
which dates from the ninth century, or on linen paper, which 
was first introduced in the twelfth century. They date from 
the ninth to the middle of the fifteenth century, when the in- 
vention of the art of printing furnished a much easier and 
cheaper mode of multiplying books. A few were written early 
in the sixteenth century. They are designated by Arabic figures. 
Their number has much increased by recent discoveries, and 
amounted in 1890 to 3553, if we include 1201 Lectionaries which 
contain only the Scripture lessons. They present a more har- 
monious text, which assumed a stereotyped form after the fifth 
century. 

These MSS. alone present a critical apparatus which is with- 
out a parallel in the history of ancient books. The Greek 
Testament was more frequently copied than all the Greek and 
Roman classics put together, some of which have come down 
to us only in two or three manuscripts of very late date. 

B. Ancient Translations are indirect or mediate sources, 
except in cases of omissions and interpolations, where they are 
equal in authority to Greek MSS. The oldest and most im- 
portant are : 

1. The Old Latin Version, called Itala, which we know 
only in fragments from the early Latin fathers — Tertullian, 
Cyprian, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustin, etc. It dates from the 
middle or second half of the second century, and presents 
many errors and variations. 

2. The Latin Vulgate, prepared by Jerome, the greatest 
biblical scholar of his age (d. 419), begun 383 and finished 405. 
It met with much opposition, even from Augustin, but by its 
superior merits gradually superseded the Itala, ruled through- 
out the Middle Ages, was first printed at Mayence, 1455, and 
sanctioned by the Council of Trent, 1546, which put it on a 
par with the original. All vernacular versions of the Roman 
Church must conform to the Vulgate. But its text has under- 
gone many corruptions and revisions ; and the pope's inf alli- 
bility does not extend to biblical criticism. 

3. The Syriac Version, called the Peshitta, i.e. the Simple, 
dates in its present shape from the third or fourth century. It 



166 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

is called " the Queen of Ancient Versions," for its faithfulness 
and idiomatic character. It was first used by Beza, Walton, 
Mill and Wetstein. The Curetonian Syriac is older than the 
Peshitta and therefore even more valuable, but is a mere frag- 
ment of the Gospels, discovered in 1842, and published by 
Cureton, 1858. There are also later Syriac versions of less 
critical value, the Philoxenian or Harclean Syriac, dating 
from 508, and the Jerusalem Syriac from the fifth cent- 
ury. 

4. Three Egyptian or Coptic translations, in three dialects, 
the Thebaic or Sahidic, the Memphitic or Bahiric, and the 
Bashmuric. They are as yet in a fragmentary condition, and 
poorly edited. 

Of less critical value are the JEthiopic, the Gothic, and the 
Armenian versions. 

All modern versions, being made from printed copies, are of 
no account for ascertaining the original text. 

C. Patristic Quotations from the New Testament in com- 
mentaries and other writings of the ancient Christian authors. 
Among these the Greek fathers are more important than the 
Latin, since they refer to the original. The quotations of 
Irenaeus, Hippolytus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Tertul- 
lian, and other ante-Nicene fathers, are older than our oldest 
MSS., but their text was liable to the same corruptions, and 
has in many places been conformed to the text in common use. 
The value of patristic citations is mainly corroborative, where 
it is supported by other ancient witnesses. 

CHAPTER CIII. 

THE received text and the true text. 

I. The traditional or commonly received text (textus receptus) 
of the New Testament is the text which ruled supreme from 
the sixteenth till the close of the eighteenth century, and from 
which all the Protestant versions have been made. It is pri- 
marily derived from the first printed editions of the Greek text 
by Erasmus (1516 ; 4th ed., 1527 ; 5th ed., 1535), who never 
used more than eight MSS., with some improvements from the 
Complutensian Polyglot (printed 1514, but not published till 
1520). It was further improved in the editions of Robert and 



THE RECEIVED TEXT AND THE TRUE TEXT. 167 

Henry Stephens (1548, 1549, 1550),* Theodore Beza (1565, 1582, 
1589, 1598), and the enterprising Dutch publisher Elzevir (1624, 
1633). In England the text of the third edition of Stephens of 
1550, called editio regia, was often reproduced, and is regarded 
as containing the textus receptus ; but on the Continent the 
Elzevir edition of 1633 was made the basis of all later editions.! 

With all respect for these meritorious scholars and publishers 
who broke the ice and did the best with the means at hand, 
the textus receptus does not deserve that superstitious vener- 
ation in which it was held for nearly three hundred years. It 
was hastily derived from a few and comparatively late MSS., 
before the discovery of the oldest and most important uncials, 
without the use of the patristic quotations and ancient ver- 
sions, without even a good text of the Vulgate, and with no 
knowledge of the principles of criticism, which was a later and 
gradual growth. It is essentially the Byzantine or Constanti- 
nopolitan text, which may be traced to the fifth century, and 
passed into all Constantinopolitan copies. 

II. The true text is that which is nearest the original. We 
have now sufficient material approximately to restore a text as 
it obtained in the ante-Nicene age up to the middle of the sec- 
ond century. This must be derived mainly from the oldest 
uncial MSS., the Latin and Syriac versions, and the quotations 
of the ante-Nicene fathers. Yet antiquity alone, like numbers, 
is no .absolute test ; it must be supported by internal probabil- 
ity. Later sources must also be consulted, but are assigned a 
subordinate degree of authority. 

Bentley, the celebrated classical critic, first suggested this 
correct principle (1716). Bengel followed it in the Apocalypse 
(1734). Lachmann first boldly carried it out (1842), but with 
a limited range of authorities and without regard to internal 
evidence, or even to the correctness of the text, aiming simply 
at the oldest as founded on external evidence. By the com- 

* The first edition of Stephens which contains the versicular division 
was printed (at Geneva) in 1551, in 2 small vols. ; the Greek text in the 
middle, and two Latin versions in smaller type — one to the left, the other 
to the right. See a facsimile in Schaff, Companion, etc., pp. 538, 539. 

+ The Elzevirs first introduced the term " textus receptus" by boldly 
declaring, in the preface to their neat and correct edition (the second, 
Leyden, 1633) : " Textum ergo habes nunc ab omnibus receptum in quo nihil 
immutatum aut corruptum damns." The second Elzevir edition differs but 
slightly from the first, and both agree substantially with the third edition 
of Stephens. Including minute variations, they differ in 287 places. Where 
Elzevir departs from Stephens, he generally agrees with Beza. 



168 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

bined labors of Lachmann, Tischendorf, Tregelles, and espe- 
cially of Westcott and Hort (who spent twenty-seven years on 
their edition), we have now attained a text which in all essen- 
tial points may be supposed to agree with the apostolic origi- 
nal. It is shorter, but also older, purer and stronger than the 
traditional text* 

- The Revised English Version of 1881 includes the chief re- 
sults of these labors. It had the benefit of the best textual 
critics who were members of the Revision Committee — West- 
cott, Hort, Lightfoot, Scrivener, and Ezra Abbot. 

CHAPTER CIV. 

CANONIC, OR THE THEORY OP THE CANON. 

Canonic is a history of the Canon of the Old and New Testa- 
ments. The Bible is a collective whole, separate and distinct 
from all other collections of books. Viewed as a unit, it is 
called the Canon, because it forms the rule or standard for the 
belief and moral conduct of those who accept it.f 

The Old Testament or the Jewish Scriptures are accepted by 
Jews and Christians alike, though understood very differently. 
The New Testament or the writings of the Evangelists and 
Apostles are accepted by Christians only, but by Christians of 
all denominations and sects. Canonicity implies inspiration, 
but there are degrees of canonicity as well as of inspiration, ac- 
cording to the difference of contents. The Jews assigned the 
highest place to the Pentateuch as the foundation of the theoc- 
racy ; the Christians, to the Gospels as containing the authen- 
tic record of the teaching and history of Christ. Hence the 
Gospels were the most frequently copied and read. 

The Bible itself contains no list of canonical books, which 
could not be made out till after they were all written and ac- 

* For the best editions of the Greek Testament, see the revised list in 
the Companion, 4th ed., p. 1, and for a brief history of Textual Criticism, 
pp. 225-298. 

t Kavcjv, in classical Greek, means a straight rod or line, then anything 
that serves to regulate or determine other things, like the Latin regula, 
norma. Paul uses it for leading thought, regulative principle (Gal. 6 : 16). 
In Ecclesiastical Greek the word was applied to the rule of faith (navuv 
ttiq TTLorecoq, Kavuv ttjq aXndeiag, symbolum fidei) ; then to the collection of in- 
spired writings (first by the Council of Laodicea, 363) ; also to disciplinary 
decrees of Councils ; and last to the catalogue of martyrs and saints (hence 
canonise, to enroll in the catalogue of saints). 



THE CANON OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 169 

cepted. Their number was gradually determined by the judg- 
ment of the Churches. This judgment is subject to investigation . 

The criteria of canonicity are external and internal. The 
external are the testimonies of tradition and Church author- 
ity ; the internal are the purity and power by which the sev- 
eral books authenticate themselves as inspired productions. 

The Roman Church emphasizes the first, the Protestant 
Church the second class, of criteria. Calvin and the Reformed 
Confessions base the authority of the Scriptures altogether on 
their intrinsic excellency and the testimony of the Holy Spirit, 
which speaks through them to the Christian reader. No eccle- 
siastical decision by pope or council, synod or confession of 
faith, can make the Scriptures what they are not in themselves. 
Their authority depends on their divine inspiration, and not on 
their human authorship, and extends alike to the anonymous 
writings, as the Book of Job, Deutero-Isaiah, the orphan- 
Psalms, and the Epistle to the Hebrews. The Bible must stand 
or fall by its own intrinsic merits ; but it is able to stand. 

• Literature. The relevant sections in the Critical Introductions to the 
Old and New Testaments, mentioned in Chapter XCIIL, page 153 : Keuss : 
Histoire du canon des saintes ecritures dans Veglise chretienne, Paris, 2d ed., 
1864 (Eng. translation by David Hunter, Edinb. 1884). S. Davidson: 
The Canon of the Bible, London, 1876, 3d ed., 1880. Briggs : Biblical 
Study, New York, 1883, Chapter V., pp. 105-138. 

On the Old Testament Canon : Strack in Herzog 2 , VII. 412-451. G. 
"Wildeboer : Die Entstehung des A. Tlichen Kanons, G-otha, 1891 (translated ^ 
from the Dutch). Frants Buhl (a Dane, successor of Delitzsch in Leip- 
zig) : Kanon und Text des A. T, Leipzig, 1891 (English translation by Mac- 
pherson, Edinburgh, 1892). H. E. Ryle : The Canon of the O. T, Lond. 1892. 

On the New Testament Canon : Charteris : Canonicity (based on Kirch- 
hofer's Quellensammlung) , Edinburgh, 1880 ; and The New Testament Script- 
ures, London, 1882. Westcott : History of the Canon of the N. T. in the 
First Four Centuries, 6th ed., 1889. Theod. Zahn : Geschichte des N. Tes- 
tamentl. Kanons, 1888 sqq., 2 vols. Ad. Harnack: Das JSfeue Testament 
urn das Jahr 200, Freiburg, 1889. 



CHAPTER CV. 

THE CANTON OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 

The Canon of the Old Testament rests on the testimony of 
the Jewish Synagogue. But this is not sufficient for Christians. 
We accept the Old Testament on the authority of Christ and 



170 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

the Apostles, who endorsed Moses and the Prophets as the or- 
gans of divine revelation. We believe first in Christ, as onr 
Lord and Saviour ; next the New Testament, as the authentic 
record of his teaching and example • and last the Old Testa- 
ment, as bearing witness of him. 

The Roman Catholic Church accepts the Canon of the Septua- 
gint and the Vulgate, which include the so-called Apocrypha. 
She puts the Apocrypha on a par with the otheii books. The 
Greek Church assigns them a subordinate position. The Prot- 
estant Churches accept only the Hebrew Scriptures as canon- 
ical, but they recognize the historical importance of the Apocry- 
pha, which fill the gap between the Old and the New Testaments, 
and represent the history and religious life of the Jews during 
that period. 

Luther's Bible contains the Apocrypha, as " books which are 
not equal to the canonical Scriptures, yet useful and good to 
read." The Reformed Churches drew a sharper distinction be- 
tween apocryphal and canonical books, but retained the former 
in the Swiss, French, Dutch and English versions. The British 
and Foreign Bible Society and the American Bible Society have 
excluded them from their editions since 1826. 



CHAPTER CVL 

ORIGIN OF THE JEWISH CANON. 

Jewish tradition traces the canon of the Old Testament to 
Ezra, the second Moses and restorer of the theocracy, in the 
middle of the fifth century before Christ, and to the " Great 
Synagogue," which he founded and which continued as a per- 
manent ecclesiastical council till about two hundred years be- 
fore the Christian era. This tradition was accepted by the 
Greek and Latin fathers and nearly all orthodox divines down 
to the present time. There is every probability that Ezra 
brought the Pentateuch or the Thorah into its present shape, 
but there is no evidence that the canon was completed before 
the Maccabeean age and the Alexandrian version* 

* The Fourth Book of Ezra (c. 14), at the close of the first Christian cent- 
ury, first reports that the Old Testament was burnt up at the destruction 
of Jerusalem under Nebuchadnezzar, but that Ezra, by divine inspiration, 
re-wrote not only the 24 canonical books, but 70 apocryphal books besides. 
The Greek and Latin fathers believed this wild legend. 



ORIGIN OF THE JEWISH CANON, ill 

There were at the time of Christ two canons differing in ex- 
tent, the shorter Hebrew and the larger Hellenistic. 

1. The Hebrew or Palestlnian (Babylonian) Canon em- 
braces the thirty-nine (or, according to the Talmndic reckoning, 
twenty-four) books of the Hebrew Bible, but none of the 
Apocrypha.* It was recognized by the Jews generally since 
the beginning of the second century. It divides the books into 
three classes, according to the supposed historical order of their 
composition, namely the Law (Thorah), the Prophets (XebJiiim), 
and the remaining Writings (Ketlnibim, Hagiograplia). The 
first division includes the five books of Moses. The second is 
subdivided into older Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings), 
and later Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve 
Minor Prophets counted as one book). The third division em- 
braces all the other books of the Hebrew Bible (Chronicles, 
Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Canticles, Ecclesiastes, Lamenta- 
tions, Esther, Daniel and Ezra-Nehemiah, the last two counted 
as one). This division was already known about B.C. 200, as 
we learn from the preface to the Proverbs of Jesus, the son of 
Sirach. It reflects the three stages in the formation of the 
canon.t 

The authorship of the several books was fixed by the Talmud, 
which ascribes the Pentateuch and Job to Moses (except eight 
verses, Deut. 34 : 5-12, written by Joshua), the Psalter to David, 
Judges, Samuel and Ruth to Samuel, etc. But the Talmud is 
no authority for Christians. 

2. The Alexandrian or Hellenistic Canon is represented 
by the Septuagint. It obliterates the distinction between the 
Prophets and the Hagiographa, and mixes among them several 
books which the Jews of Palestine either rejected or allowed 
only as profane literature. These are the Apocrypha, so-called, 
or obscure writings of unknown or uncertain origin. Their 
number is indefinite and varies in different copies of the Sep- 

* Josephus, in his book against Apion, I. 8 (written c. 100), counts only 
22 books, according to the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet, by 
combining several books into one, but he considered all the books of our 
Hebrew Bible as canonical, and counted them like Origen, but arranged 
them differently. The Talmud counts 24 books, likewise by combining 
several into one. Josephus was followed by the Greek and Latin fathers, 
the Talmud by the Jewish scholars and the Hebrew manuscripts. The 
printed editions of the Hebrew Bible divide it into 39 books. 

t This division is indicated in Luke 24 : 44 : " Which are written in the 
law of Moses, and the Prophets, and the Psalms, concerning me." The 
Psalms are the chief book of the third division. 



172 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

tuagint. They are partly philosophical or proverbial (the Prov- 
erbs of Sirach, the Wisdom of Solomon), partly poetical (the 
Psalms of Solomon), partly historical and legendary (the Three 
Books of the Maccabees, Tobit and Judith), partly prophetical 
(the Book of Henoch, the Assumption of Moses, the Fourth Book 
of Ezra, the Book of Baruch, the Epistle of Jeremiah, the 
Apocalypse of Baruch), or popular additions to canonical books 
(to Esther and Daniel, and the Prayer of Manasseh). The 
apocryphal books passed from the Greek Septuagint into the 
Latin Vulgate. Hence the difference between the Roman Cath- 
olic and the Protestant Bibles, above referred to. 

CHAPTER CVII. 

THE CANON OF THE NEW TESTAMENT IN THE ANCIENT CHURCH. 

The Canon of the New Testament embraces twenty-seven 
books, and is the same in the Greek, Roman, and all Protestant 
Churches. 

It is the result of a gradual growth, like the canon of the Old 
Testament. The ancient Church was unanimous in the recep- 
tion of the Gospels, Acts and the chief Epistles, but was divided 
in its judgment of the canonicity of seven books which are now 
in the canon, and of a few books now excluded from the canon. 
The first class of books are James, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude, 
Hebrews and the Apocalypse. The second embraces the Epis- 
tle of Clement of Rome, the Epistle of Polycarp to the Philip- 
pians, the Epistle of Barnabas, the Shepherd of Hermas, per- 
haps also the " Teaching of the Twelve Apostles," and a few 
other books which were widely used in public service, some of 
them appended in uncial MSS. of the New Testament,* but were 
afterwards numbered among the Apocrypha. They sustain the 
same relation to the canonical books of the New Testament as 
the Jewish Apocrypha to the Hebrew canon. 

The general ecclesiastical use in public worship, based upon 
a belief in the apostolic origin and divine inspiration of the 
books, decided the question of canonicity. 

I. From the Apostolic age (30-100) we know that the Epistles 

* The Sinaitic Bible Codex includes the Epistle of Barnabas and a por- 
tion of the Shepherd of Hermas ; the Alexandrian Bible Codex contains 
the first Epistle of Clement of Rome, and the fragment of a second (which 
is not genuine, but a homily of later date). 



THE NEW TESTAMENT IN THE ANCIENT CHURCH. 173 

of Paul were read in the churches to which they were addressed 
(1 Thess. 5 : 27 j Col. 4 : 15). The same was presumably the 
case with the other Epistles. The prohibition to add to, or to 
take away from, "the words of the book of this prophecy" 
(Apoc. 22 : 18, 19), refers evidently only to the Book of Revela- 
tion, and has nothing to do with the canon. The first intima- 
tion of a collection of Paul's Epistles is found in 2 Peter 3 : 16 
(iv -doatg emoroXalg), which are said to be misinterpreted like 
" the other scriptures." 

The writings of the Apostolic (or rather post- Apostolic) 
Fathers, which date from the close of the first or from the be- 
ginning of the second century, breathe the atmosphere of the 
oral teaching of the Apostles and contain few quotations from 
their writings, which were then not yet generally circulated 
and collected. The author of the Bidache was familiar with 
Matthew, which he calls "the Gospel of Christ." Barnabas 
quotes a passage from this Gospel (Matt. 22 : 14), with the sol- 
emn formula of Scripture quotation, "It is written." The 
Epistle of Clement of Rome shows acquaintance with Matthew, 
Paul and Hebrews, but has no direct quotation. The Epistles 
of Ignatius, and the Epistle of Polycarp are interwoven with 
reminiscences of John and Paul. Papias gives us valuable hints 
concerning the Gospels of Matthew and Mark. But in none 
of these writers do we find the least trace of a fixed canon. 

IT. In the second century, Justin Martyr, about 150, is the 
earliest witness for the use of the canonical Gospels in public 
worship on Sunday. His pupil, Tatian, about 170, wrote the 
first harmony of the four Gospels, which has been recently re- 
covered in an Armenian and in an Arabic version. The heret- 
ical canon of Marcion, which embraced a mutilated Gospel of 
Luke and ten Epistles of Paul, presupposes a larger catholic 
canon about the middle of the second century; for heresy 
usually follows truth as its caricature. 

Most of the books of the New Testament were in general use 
in the latter half of the second century, and are quoted as apos- 
tolic and inspired scriptures by Irenaeus, Theophilus of Antioch, 
Clement of Alexandria, and Tertullian of Carthage. 

The mutilated Muratorian fragment, of Roman origin between 
160 and 220, contains a canon, which enumerates Mark, Luke 
(as the third Gospel, which explains the omission of Matthew), 
John, Acts, thirteen Epistles of Paul, two Epistles of John, one 



174 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

of Jude, the Apocalypses of John and Peter. It thus omits 
James, Hebrews, 3 John, 1 and 2 Peter, but adds an Apoca- 
lypse of Peter, with the note : " Some of our body will not have 
it read in the Church." * 

III. In the third century we have accumulated evidence of the 
ecclesiastical use of nearly all the books of the New Testament 
in the writings of Hippolytus, Origen, Cyprian, Novatian, and 
in the ancient versions. The Syriac Peshitta omits only Jude, 
2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Revelation. The old Latin Version 
omits probably Hebrews, James, and 2 Peter. The Sinaitic 
Bible includes all the twenty-seven books. 

IV. Fourth Century. Eusebius, the historian (d. 340), gives 
us a full account of the state of the canon in the age of Con- 
stantine, and the Council of Nicaea. He distinguishes four 
classes of sacred books which were then in use among Chris- 
tians. 

1. Homologumena, i.e. such as were universally acknowledged : 
22 out of the 27 books of the New Testament, viz., 4 Gospels, 
Acts, 14 Pauline Epistles (including Hebrews), 1 Peter, 1 John 
and Revelation. But in another passage he counts Hebrews 
and Revelation with the second class. The difficulty with He- 
brews was its anonymity and the difference of opinion concern- 
ing its authorship ; the difficulty with the Apocalypse was the 
mysteriousness of its contents. 

2. Antilegomena, or controverted books, yet " familiar to most 
people of the Church " : the Epistle of James, the Epistle of 
Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John (Hebrews and Apocalypse). 

3. Spurious books (v6$a) 7 such as the Acts of Paul, the Revela- 
tion of Peter, the Shepherd of Hermas, the Epistle of Barnabas, 
the so-called " Doctrines of the Apostles " (the Didache, redis- 
covered in 1873, and first published in 1883), and the Gospel 
according to the Hebrews (which was probably based upon the 
Hebrew Matthew). 

4. Heretical books, such as the apocryphal Gospels of Peter, 
of Thomas, of Matthias, the Acts of Andrew, of John, and of 
the other Apostles. 

The first (Ecumenical Council of Nicaea, 325, made no deliver- 

*According to one of the last papers of Bishop Lightfoot, published in 
his work on S. Clement of Rome, II. 405-413 (London, 1890), the much dis- 
cussed fragment of Muratori (who discovered it in the Ambrosian Library 
at Milan, 1740) was originally written in Greek verse, probably by Hip- 
polytus of Eome (who died about 236). 



PROTESTANTISM AND THE CANON. 175 

ance on the canon, nor did any other of the seven (Ecumenical 
Councils do so. 

CHAPTER CVIII. 

THE FINAL SETTLEMENT OF THE CANON. 

The canon was finally settled by a few Provincial Councils 
held towards the close of the fourth century, one in the East at 
Laodicea in Phrygia, 363 (which omits the Apocalypse), and 
two in North Africa, at Hippo, 393, and at Carthage, 397, both 
under the commanding influence of Augustin. The African 
canon includes the Apocrypha of the Old Testament, and so 
far supports the Roman Bible. Augustin was the first theolo- 
gian of his age, but poorly qualified to judge on critical ques- 
tions, and depended on the imperfect Latin version for his 
knowledge of the Bible. His elder contemporary, Jerome, was 
a better biblical scholar, and favored the Hebrew versus the 
Hellenistic canon ; yet he translated the apocryphal books of 
the Old Testament, and his version was the common Bible of 
the Latin Church throughout the Middle Ages. 

The Council of Trent, in 1546, formally endorsed the tradi- 
tional Latin canon, without making a distinction between the 
canonical and apocryphal books, and pronounced an anathema 
on those who dissent from the decision. But the Council of 
Trent is no authority for Protestants, and could not alter the 
facts of history. It was a purely papal council, like the Vati- 
can Council of 1870. Among the fathers of that council, mostly 
Italians, there was none who had any special distinction as a 
biblical or historical scholar. The authority of the Church out- 
weighed all arguments of scholarship. 



CHAPTER CIX. 

PROTESTANTISM AND THE CANON. 

The Reformers claimed the freedom of the ante-Nicene 
Church and revived the doubts on the Apocrypha of the Old 
Testament and several Antilegomena of the New. Luther es- 
pecially, following a subjective instinct rather than critical 
principles, uttered bold and unwise opinions on Esther, the 



176 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Epistle of James, the Hebrews and the Apocalypse. He made 
the truth of Christ the true criterion of canonicity. From a 
novel and profound view of inspiration, he said in the Preface 
to the first edition of his version of the New Testament (1522) : 
" That which does not teach Christ is not apostolic, though 
Peter and Paul should teach it; again, that which teaches 
Christ is apostolic, though Judas, Annas, Pilate and Herod 
should teach it." But the Lutheran Church retained the tradi- 
tional canon, with a slight change in the order of the books. 

Zwingli did not recognize the Apocalypse as apostolic. 

Calvin never commented on the Apocalypse ; he denied the 
Pauline authorship of Hebrews, and doubted the genuineness 
of 2 Peter, though he found in it nothing unworthy of an 
apostle. But he recommended no changes in the canon. 

The example of the three greatest among the Reformers 
proves conclusively that the profoundest reverence for the 
Word of God in the Bible may coexist with very liberal opin- 
ions on some parts of the canon. 

For all practical purposes the settlement of the canon is 
final; for the Roman Church with the Apocrypha, for the 
evangelical Churches without the Apocrypha. Our Bibles will 
never be enlarged or diminished. 

The Church was guided by a sound religious instinct in the 
selection and limitation of the sacred books. Some of these 
books are, indeed, less important than others, yet they fill a 
gap and serve a useful purpose. Esther, the Song of Songs, 
Ecclesiastes, and the Apocalypse are sealed books to many Chris- 
tians, but fountains of edification and comfort to others. The 
Bible provides for all tastes and wants. The Book of Esther 
canonizes patriotism, which may well claim a place among 
Christian virtues. The Song of Songs may not contain all the 
spiritual mysteries which many pious people read into it, 
but it elevates bridal love, which reflects the love of God to his 
creatures, and of Christ to his Church. All pure love is holy 
and divine, a flame kindled by the God of love. 

The question of canonicity should not be confounded with 
the question of human authorship. The latter cannot be decided 
by Church authority, and must be left open to the free inves- 
tigation of Christian scholarship. 



HISTORICAL OR HIGHER CRITICISM. 177 

CHAPTER CX. 

SPECIAL ISAGOGIC. 

Special Introduction has to do with the several books of the 
Canon in detail and constitutes the main body of Isagogic. It 
may be treated separately in one or more volumes.* 

It deals with all the preliminary questions concerning the 
origin and historical environments of the several books, namely 
the authorship, the time and place of composition, the circle of 
readers, the aim of the writer, an analysis of the contents, and 
the history of interpretation, with a select list of the chief com- 
mentators. It thus combines in one whole the introductory in- 
formation which usually precedes the commentaries. 

The matter is derived partly from contemporary, extra-bibli- 
cal sources, partly and mostly from the books themselves. 
Thus the Epistle to the Romans in connection with the Acts of 
the Apostles supplies all the necessary facts as to the author- 
ship, place, time and aim of composition. 

CHAPTER CXI. 

HISTORICAL OR HIGHER CRITICISM. 

Special Introduction is the field for the exercise of historical 
or higher criticism, which deals with the Bible as literature ; 
while lower criticism deals with the text. Criticism follows 
the inductive method, like every true science. It ascertains, 
collects and classifies the facts and phenomena, and then draws 
such general conclusions as the facts justify. It has no apolo- 
getic or polemic or dogmatic purpose, but aims simply to estab- 
lish the truth concerning the origin, history and structure of 
the biblical writings. It may result in the overthrow or in the 
confirmation or modification of traditional theories. " It proves 
all things and holds fast that which is good" (1 Thess. 5 : 21). 

The Fathers, Schoolmen and Reformers devoted their atten- 

* Most writers on Isagogic — De Wette, Bleek, Reuss, Weiss, Holtzmann 
— combine in one work the general subjects of textual criticism and canonic 
with a special introduction ; but Credner, Davidson, Salmon (Introduction 
to the New Testament) and Driver (Introduction to the Old Testament) con- 
fine themselves to special introduction. 



178 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

tion to the doctrinal contents of the Bible in the full conviction 
of its divine inspiration, but cared very little about its human 
origin and literary form. 

Biblical criticism is the product of the modern historical spirit 
of independent investigation, which receives nothing on mere 
trust and goes to the primary sources and bottom-facts. Ra- 
tionalism has, since the end of the eighteenth century — the cen- 
tury of revolution — emancipated theology from the bondage of 
traditionalism and dogmatism, and cultivated every branch of 
biblical learning with patient industry and success, especially 
philology, archaeology and isagogic. It starts from the prin- 
ciple that the Bible must be studied and explained from a purely 
literary and historical standpoint, like any other ancient book, 
without a dogmatic bias or prepossession. But there are nega- 
tive and antidogmatic as well as positive and dogmatic prej- 
udices. Strauss and Renan wrote their Lives of Jesus with the 
philosophical preconception of the impossibility of a miracle. 
Such a prepossession is just as uncritical and unhistorical as 
the opposite. If a miracle can be proven by satisfactory evi- 
dence, it has the same claim upon our belief as a natural event. 
We cannot absolutely emancipate ourselves from educational 
influences and personal experiences ; but we certainly should 
aim first and last at the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but 
the truth. 

There are two classes of critics, positive or conservative, and 
negative or radical ; and between these two extremes, there are 
moderate, discriminating critics, who favor every genuine prog- 
ress, but without breaking with the faith of the past. Neander, 
Bleek, Bernhard Weiss, Ezra Abbot, and Bishop Lightfoot 
have done as good and more enduring critical work than Baur, 
Strauss, Renan and the anonymous author of Supernatural Re- 
ligion. There is a criticism of doubt which destroys, and a 
criticism of faith which builds up. The mission of negative 
criticism is to break down old prejudices, to rouse opposition 
and investigation, and to clear the way for a new structure. 
The mission of positive criticism is to reconstruct and to adjust 
the theory of the Bible to ascertained facts. 



AUTHORSHIP. 179 

CHAPTER CXIL 

AUTHORSHIP OF THE BIBLE. 

Among the numerous topics of Special Introduction to the 
Bible, the question of authorship or genuineness, which refers 
to the origin and time of composition, occupies a prominent 
place. 

The inspiration and canonicity of a book do not depend upon 
its human authorship, but upon its intrinsic value and the judg- 
ment of the Christian world. Nevertheless, the person of the 
author and the time of composition have an important bearing 
upon the degree of reliability and trustworthiness of a book. A 
false prophecy, or false doctrine, or historical error cannot be 
inspired. The nearer the source of events, the greater is the 
possibility and probability of accuracy ; while the liability of 
misunderstanding, omission and addition increases in propor- 
tion to the distance of the writer from the scene of action. If 
Moses and his contemporaries composed the Pentateuch which 
bears his name, we have a much better guarantee for the his- 
torical character of the events therein narrated than if the 
Pentateuch was written by unknown persons several centuries 
later. If the Synoptic Gospels were written before the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem, and the fourth Gospel before the close of the 
first century, we have a solid foundation for the life of Christ 
by two primitive disciples and two associates of apostles ; but 
if the fourth Gospel was the product of some Christian genius 
of the second century who dealt as freely with the historic 
Jesus of Nazareth, as Plato with Socrates, we would lose at 
least a considerable part of the most valuable information, 
which we could expect only from the bosom friend of Jesus. 
" Distance lends enchantment to the view," but often at the 
expense of reality. 

Hence the great importance which the question of authorship 
has assumed in biblical criticism. The tendency of the ration- 
alistic critics has heretofore been to bring the composition down 
to later dates and thus to weaken the historical credibility. 
There is an exception in the case of the Apocalypse, which for 
internal reasons has been by most critics put back from the 
traditional date under Domitian (95) to the time between the 
death of Nero and the destruction of Jerusalem (68-70). 



180 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

The authorship of a book must be ascertained by external 
testimony and internal evidence. The former has the posses- 
sion of the ground and should always be treated with respect, 
but cannot be regarded as final. The internal evidence of the 
book itself may outweigh the testimony of tradition. One of 
the surest signs of date is the allusion to facts and conditions. 
If a work on American history mentions the name of Lincoln 
or Grant, it is conclusive evidence that it cannot date from the 
colonial period. Moses cannot have written an account of his 
own death and burial, though it is included in Deuteronomy, 
which the Talmud ascribes to Moses. The evidence of style is 
also important, but less conclusive, since the same author may 
vary his style at different periods of life, or according to the 
difference of subjects. It is not impossible that the same 
Apostle John composed the prophetic Apocalypse in his vigor- 
ous manhood, and the historic Gospel in extreme old age. Illus- 
trations may be found in the genuine writings of Dante, 
Shakespeare, Milton, Carlyle, and Goethe. 

CHAPTER CXIII. 

KNOWN AND UNKNOWN AUTHORSHIP. 

As regards authorship, the biblical books are divided into 
three classes. Some are anonymous, as Job, a number of the 
Psalms (the Orphan-Psalms so called), Judges, Kings, Chron- 
icles, Euth, Esther. Others have traditional headings in the 
manuscripts and printed copies, as the Pentateuch, the four 
Gospels, the Acts. In a third class, the authors themselves 
indicate their names, as the Prophets, and the writers of the 
Epistles (except Hebrews and the three Epistles of John). 

In the case of anonymous books we may never be able to 
advance beyond the region of conjecture and probability, and 
it is well to be modest and cautious. The Epistle to the He- 
brews is variously ascribed to Paul, to Barnabas, to Luke, to 
Clement, to Apollos ; but all we can ascertain from internal 
evidence with some degree of certainty, is that it was written 
from Italy by a friend of Timothy, by a disciple or companion 
of Paul, about the time of his Roman captivity (Heb. 13 : 23, 24). 
Origen wisely says : " God only knows who wrote the Epistle 
to the Hebrews." 



PRESENT STATE OF HIGHER CRITICISM. 181 

In the second class, where we have to deal simply with tradi- 
tional opinions of the Jewish synagogue or of the early Chris- 
tian Church, as expressed in the titles, the way is open for de- 
fense, or reasonable doubt ; and the question must be decided 
for or against tradition by internal evidence. Neither the 
synagogue, nor any Christian Church has ever claimed infalli- 
bility in matters of history. 

In the third class, where the writer gives his name in the 
book itself, the alternative is truth or literary fiction, and noth- 
ing but the strongest evidence should induce us to doubt the 
veracity of the author. 



CHAPTER CXIV. 

PRESENT STATE OF HIGHER CRITICISM,, 

There is scarcely a book in the Bible which has not been sub- 
mitted to the dissecting-knife of the most searching criticism, 
such as would disprove the genuineness of almost any ancient 
book. 

I. The New Testament Criticism. The rationalistic criti- 
cism of the apostolic literature reached its culmination in the 
" Tubingen School," founded by Dr. F. Christian Baur (1792- 
1860), Professor of Church History in the University of Tubin- 
gen, and a master-critic of the highest scholarship and power 
of combination. He reconstructed, in a series of critical in- 
vestigations, the whole history of primitive Christianity by rep- 
resenting the literature of the New Testament as the battlefield 
of Petrine, Pauline, and mediating, irenic tendencies, which re- 
sulted, as by a dialectical process of thesis, antithesis, and syn- 
thesis, in the formation of the Catholic Church of the second 
century. He applied the Hegelian theory of development or 
evolution to literature. He went at first so far as to deny 
the apostolic origin of all the New Testament writings, except 
five — the four great Epistles of Paul (Galatians, First and Sec- 
ond Corinthians, and Romans) and the Apocalypse of John. 

This was, however, a most important concession ; for these 
writings confirm the historical basis of Christianity and allude 
to the chief events in the life of its founder, as his birth, his 
miracles, his crucifixion and resurrection. And it is a very 
significant fact that Dr. Baur made the honorable confession 



182 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

that the conversion of Paul from an enemy to an apostle is 
beyond the reach of any psychological or dialectical analysis, 
and cannot be explained except by a miracle of divine grace * 

In the progress of development, the Tubingen School has 
greatly narrowed the sphere of scepticism and conceded the 
genuineness of all but three or four of the thirteen Epistles of 
Paul.f The three Pastoral Epistles are still in dispute, because 
they cannot be easily located in the known life of Paul and 
seem to indicate a post-Pauline state of church polity and 
heresy ; but these difficulties are not insurmountable if we ac- 
cept the hypothesis of a second Roman captivity. The second 
Epistle to Timothy wears the unmistakable physiognomy of the 
aged Apostle of the Gentiles shortly before the heroic close of 
a heroic life. The Epistle to the Ephesians is in some respects 
his prof oundest work and could hardly have been conceived by 
any other genius. 

The Synoptical and the Johannean problems are approaching 
a satisfactory solution after every possible hypothesis has been 
tried. Matthew is now conceded to have been written before 
A.D. 70, when Jerusalem and the temple were still standing. 
There is no good reason why the same should not be true of 
Luke, who wrote independently of Matthew and had the best 
opportunity of composing his Gospel from earlier records and 
oral tradition at Ceesarea and Borne in the company of Paul. 
It is generally conceded that the Acts of the Apostles were 
written by the same author ; and his companionship with Paul 
and credibility are conclusively proven by the " we-sections " 
so-called, especially the remarkably accurate account of the 
voyage and shipwreck, which has been verified in every particu- 
lar. As regards the Gospel of Mark, the older view that it is 
a mere abridgment of Matthew (first suggested by St. Augustin, 
renewed by De Wette, Baur and Keim), has been completely 
reversed, and the well-nigh unanimous consensus of the latest 
critics recognizes its originality and independence. It reflects 
the fresh and impulsive temper of Peter, and by numerous in- 
cidental details and picturesque touches betrays the observation 
of an eye-witness. 

* See his testimony in Schaff' s Church History, I. 315. 

t Benan, also, admits as genuine nine Epistles of Paul, besides the Acts, 
and the narrative portions of John. He otherwise goes the full length of 
the negative critics of G-ermany both in the Old and New Testament. 



PRESENT STATE OF HIGHER CRITICISM. 183 

The Johannean authorship of the fourth Gospel is still in 
dispute j but the latest discoveries — as the Diatessaron of Ta- 
tian (which begins with the Prologue of John), the last book of 
the pseudo-Clementine Homilies (referring to John 9 : 25), the 
knowledge of the Prologue by Basilides, one of the earliest 
Gnostics, made known by the Philosophumena of Hippolytus, 
the traces of Johannean phraseology in the Didache — have 
forced the critics to push the composition back from 170, or 
150 (the date assigned to it by Baur), almost to the beginning 
of the second century, when many friends and pupils of John 
were still living j while the internal evidence in favor of its 
genuineness far outweighs the objections and justifies the con- 
clusion that such a Gospel could only have been written by an 
eye-witness, by one of the twelve, by one of the favorite three, 
by the son of Zebedee and Salome, by the Apostle John under 
divine inspiration.* 

II. The Old Testament. The higher criticism of the He- 
brew literature has been carried on chiefly in the school of 
Heinrich Ewald (1803-1875), a younger contemporary of Baur, 
for ten years (1838-1848) his antagonistic colleague, and equal 
to him in genius and learning, honesty and earnestness. 

This school has revolutionized the traditional opinions on 
the origin and composition of the Pentateuch (or Hexateuch, 
including Joshua), the authorship of the greater part of Isaiah 
(especially the exilic Deutero-Isaiah from chapters 40-66), of 
Daniel, of the Davidic Psalms, and the Solomonic writings. 
The doubts and objections of older scholars have been fortified, 
systematized, and an attempt made to reconstruct the entire 
history and literature of the Old Testament. The venerable 
Professor Delitzsch shortly before his death made large con- 
cessions to this advanced School. At present there is scarcely 
a scholar among the academic professors of Old Testament 
exegesis in Protestant Europe who defends the orthodox 
theory.f 

* Professor Schiirer, one of the ablest and most judicious scholars, meets 
the conservative critics half-way and concedes that A.D. 130 is the latest 
possible date to which the composition of the fourth Gospel can be as- 
signed. See his article in TJie Contemporary Beview for September, 1891, 
and two articles of Professor Sanday of Oxford on the Johannean question, 
in The Expositor for March and April, 1892. Dr. Ritschl, who was for- 
merly a pupil of Dr. Baur, and then became the head of a new theological 
school, admitted the Johannean origin of the fourth Gospel. 

t All the articles on Old Testament subjects in The Encyclopaedia Britan- 



184 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

But a reaction similar to that in the Tubingen School will 
no doubt take place on those difficult and complicated problems, 
and has already begun in the hue of the search after the older 
sources from which the various documents of the Pentateuch 
are derived. It has been suggested that these documents fur- 
nish a parallel to the four canonical Gospels, which are them- 
selves derived, in part at least, from older Gospel fragments, 
such as the Hebrew Matthew and the writings referred to in 
the Prologue of Luke. 

The process of action and reaction will go on, and it would 
be unprotestant and unwise, as well as impossible, to stop it. 
Truth will slowly but surely make its way through the wilder- 
ness of conflicting hypotheses. 

A theological teacher may shake the confidence of students in 
the Bible and thus unfit them for the ministry, either by ob- 
stinately shutting his eyes against new light and progress, or 
by presenting negative results without furnishing the antidote. 
In either case, he incurs a fearful responsibility. The cause of 
biblical criticism has been much injured in the eyes of devout 
Christians by the hasty and oracular assertions of unproved 
hypotheses. 

To theological students I would give the advice, as the 
best safeguard against the danger of scepticism, to master first 
and last the contents of the Bible, and never to lose sight of 
its spiritual truths, which are immeasurably more important 
than all the questions of lower and higher criticism. 



CHAPTER CXV. 

THE FINAL RESULT. 

The immense labor of Christian scholarship cannot be lost, 
and must accrue at last to the advantage of the Church. The 
result will be a clear and comprehensive restatement of the 
Bible literature as an organic whole on the basis of all the new 
facts brought to light by modern research. 

We should remember that the Bible has a human as well as 
a divine side, and we must know both in order to enjoy its full 

nica, under the editorship of W. Robertson Smith, are from negative critics. 
This is hardly consistent with impartiality, which should be one of the 
chief traits of an encyclopaedia. 



PRESENT STATE OF HIGHER CRITICISM. 185 

benefit. The person of our Lord and Saviour comes near to us 
by his humanity as our sympathizing friend and brother ; and 
his humanity has never before been so fully brought to light as 
in the nineteenth century. So also the Bible is made more in- 
telligible, interesting and useful to the devout student by a full 
knowledge of its humanity, its human birth and growth, its 
various fortunes, its variety and beauty, its historic setting and 
environments, its fitness for its own time and for all subse- 
quent times. 

Healthy criticism, animated by the love of truth, is a blessing 
to the Church, and keeps theology from stagnation. Every 
real progress in biblical learning must ultimately have a bene- 
ficial effect upon Christian life. Faith in the Bible must be 
grounded upon the rock of its divine truth, not upon the shift- 
ing sand of human theories. The Bible need not fear the clos- 
est scrutiny. The critics will die, but the Bible will remain — 
the Book of books for all ages. Human opinions and systems 
fade away • in the New Testament blooms the eternal spring. 



FOURTH SECTION: BIBLICAL HERMENEUTIC AND 

EXEGESIS. 



CHAPTER CXVI. 

NATURE OF HERMENEUTIC. 



Hermeneutic is the science of the laws and principles of in- 
terpretation, by which the meaning of an anthor is ascertained 
from his language. 

It is closely related to Logic or the science of the laws of 
thought, and to Grammar and Rhetoric or the science of the 
laws of language and speech. 

Biblical Hermeneutic is general Hermeneutic applied to the 
books of the Old and New Testaments. It precedes exegesis or 
the actual work of interpretation, but on the other hand it pre- 
supposes exegetical skill and experience. It embraces some ac- 
count of the languages of the Bible, discussions on the qualifi- 
cations of an interpreter, on different methods of interpretation, 
on metaphors, symbols, types, parables, and also a history of in- 
terpretation. 

Hermeneutic is derived from epiuijvevu, to interpret, to explain, and this 
from 'Epfx?jg, the son of Zeus and Maia, the messenger of the gods and in- 
terpreter of their will. The Greek Hermes corresponds to the Roman 
Mercurius (from merx, mercari), who was originally the god of commerce 
and gain ; and hence especially worshiped "by merchants. 'Epjunveia and 
k%rjyr)oiQ mean the same thing; but hermeneutic now denotes the theory, 
exegesis, the practice of interpretation. 

Literature : Works on Hermeneutic by Ernesti (Leipzig, 5th ed., 
1809) ; Lucre (Gottingen, 1817) ; Schleiermacher (edited by Lticke, 
1838) ; Klausen (Leipzig, 1841) ; Wilke (Leipzig, 1843) ; Cellerier 
(Paris, 1852) ; Kuenen (Leiden, 1858) ; Patrick Fairbairn (Glasgow 
and Philadelphia, 1859) ; Immer (Wittenberg, 1873, translated by Albert 
H. Newman, Andover, 1877) ; Lange (Bonn, 1878) ; J. Chr. von Hofmann 
(posthumous, ed. by Volck, 1880); Volck (in Zockler's EncyTd., 3d ed. 
1889) ; * M. S. Terry (New York, 1883, revised ed. 1892). 

A full list of hermeneutical books down to 1883, in Terry, pp. 738-752. 

On the History of Interpretation : * L. Diestel : ■ History of the Old Testa- 
ment in the Christian Church (Jena, 1869). F. W. Farrar: History of In- 
terpretation (London, 1886). 



AB1 OF INTERPRETATION. 187 

CHAPTER CXVII. 

AIM OF INTERPRETATION. 

Every literary composition, sacred or secular, consists of ideas 
expressed in words connected into sentences. The ideas are the 
soul, the words are the body. The aim of interpretation is to 
draw out the idea from the words or to ascertain and unfold, 
according to the recognized laws of speech and thought (gram- 
mar and logic), the true sense of the writer from his own vocab- 
ulary and range of thought, without addition, abstraction or 
any other change, so that the reader may be put as far as pos- 
sible into the very situation and experience of the author. 

This work becomes more difficult and complicated in propor- 
tion to the distance of time and place of composition, and the 
doctrinal difference between the writer and his interpreter. 

The Bible is the clearest and yet the most obscure of all 
books. It has been compared to a river with depths for an 
elephant to swim in, and with shallows that a lamb can wade. 
" Oftentimes the same Scripture is at once a depth for one and 
a shallow for another." It is sufficiently intelligible for prac- 
tical purposes to every reader who seeks in it spiritual edifica- 
tion and comfort and uses it as a guide in the battle of life. 
Hence it is the daily food of the people of Grod. But it is also 
the most difficult to understand and interpret, because it is the 
most profound and most universal book in the world. Hence 
it has occupied the minds of theologians and scholars for these 
eighteen centuries, and is now more extensively studied than 
ever. " Habet Scriptura haustus primos, haustus secundos, haus- 
tus infinites" (Augustin). 

An absolute understanding of the Bible is impossible in this 
world. The prophetic portions will only be fully understood 
in the light of their fulfilment. But there is a progressive un- 
derstanding through the course of the Christian centuries among 
scholars, and a growing demand for a popular diffusion of the 
best results of exegetical research among the laity. Each gen- 
eration digs new treasures from this inexhaustible mine ; each 
commentary creates a taste for another and a better one ; and 
the occupation of the exegete will never cease till " we shall see 
face to face and know even as we are known." 



188 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

CHAPTER CXVIII. 

QUALIFICATIONS OF AN INTERPRETER. 

The qualifications for the office of an exegete are natural and 
acquired, intellectual and moral. 

I. The intellectual and educational qualifications are : 

(1) Common sense and sound judgment, which enable one to 
follow the author's train of thoughts and to understand them 
in their connection and bearing. 

A lively imagination controlled by sober judgment is likewise 
a desirable (though rare) gift of a commentator, by which he 
can realize the situation of the writer and penetrate into his 
state of mind and feeling during the composition. 

(2) Knowledge of the author's language, which is the key to 
his thought, the bearer of his meaning. In the case of the Old 
Testament the Hebrew and Aramaic, in the case of the New 
the Greek. (See Biblical Philology, pp. 101 sqq.) 

(3) Knowledge of the historical relations and conditions in 
which the book was written. In the interpretation of the 
Bible, which was composed in the distant East many hundreds 
of years ago, much antiquarian learning is required. (See 
chapters on Archaeology, pp 140 sqq.) 

II. Moral and spiritual qualifications. 

(1) Honesty or a conscientious regard for truth, to which all 
preconceived notions and dogmatic prejudices must be sacri- 
ficed. The aim of the interpreter is not, to make the author 
say what he might have said, or ought to have said, but to find 
out what he actually did say and mean. A great deal of pre- 
tended exegesis is megesis, or imposition rather than exposition. 
This is especially true of the allegorizing method which turns 
the Bible into a nose of wax. 

(2) Sympathy with the spirit and subject of the writer. Only 
a poet or at least a mind endowed with love and taste for poetry 
can understand and expound a Homer or Dante or Shakes- 
peare* Only a philosopher can understand and appreciate 
Plato or Aristotle or Spinoza or Leibnitz or Kant or Hegel. 

For the same reason the proper exposition of the Bible re- 

* " Wer den Dichter will verstehen, 
Muss in Dichter 's Lande gehen." 

Goethe (Westostlicher Divan). 



TRANSLATIONS, PARAPHRASE, COMMENTARY. 189 

quires a religious niind, enlightened by the Holy Spirit who 
spoke through the prophets and apostles. Without this we 
may understand the letter or the body, but can never penetrate 
to the living soul of the Bible. No amount of grammatical and 
historical learning can compensate for the want of spiritual 
affinity and insight. " The natural man receiveth not the things 
of the Spirit of God : for they are foolishness unto him : and 
he cannot know them, because they are spiritually judged. But 
he that is spiritual judgeth all things." (1 Cor. 2 : 14, 15.) 



CHAPTER CXIX. 

TRANSLATIONS, PARAPHRASE, COMMENTARY. 

We now enter upon the field of exegesis proper, or the actual 
interpretation of the Scriptures. 

There are three degrees of interpretation : translation, para- 
phrase, commentary. 

I. A Translation is a simple transfer of the original into a 
vernacular tongue. There are two kinds of translation : 

1. A translation for scholarly and private use, as a basis of 
a critical commentary, should be as close and faithful as pos- 
sible, with exclusive regard to accuracy.* 

2. A translation for popular and public use should be an 
idiomatic reproduction ; free as well as true, and adapted to 
the genius of the language into which it is made, so as to come 
home to the reader with all the power and beauty of an origi- 
nal work. Model translations of this class are : the Syriac 
Peshitta, the Latin Vulgate, Luther's German Bible, the Au- 
thorized English Version, and other Protestant versions of the 
Reformation period. 

The Roman Catholic Church requires all authorized transla- 
tions into modern languages to be conformed to the Latin Vul- 
gate. Hence they are translations of a translation, and latin- 
izing to a degree that makes them in some places almost unin- 
telligible, as compared with the popular Protestant versions 
which are made directly from the original.! 

* Ewald's translations in his commentaries are models of accuracy. He 
goes so far as to defy the German idiom, in rendering 6 Aoyog " der Wort," 
instead of " das Wort," to indicate the personality of the Logos, John 1 : 1. 

t The Rheims version of the New Testament (1582), in its first editions, 
had a large number of Latinisms, such as " supersubstantial " (supersub- 



190 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

II. A Paraphrase is an explanatory and extended transla- 
tion. Clearer and simpler terms and phrases are substituted 
for obscure ones and made part of the text. 

Examples : the Aramaic Targums (i.e., translations) of the 
Old Testament which became necessary after the Babylonian 
Exile when the Hebrew as a spoken language gave way to the 
Aramaic. Erasmus's Paraphrase of the New Testament. Dodd- 
ridge's Family Expositor. 

III. A Commentary is an explanation of the text distinct 
from the text itself. It may be brief in the form of glosses 
and hints, or may be full and exhaustive. 

There are three kinds of commentaries : philological, theo- 
logical, and practical or homiletical; and there are commen- 
taries which combine all three. There are critical commenta- 
ries for scholars, and popular commentaries for general use. 

CHAPTER CXX. 

THE ENGLISH VERSION AND REVISION. 

Every student and minister (in his pulpit preparations) ought 
to use the Revised Version of 1885 in connection with the Au- 
thorized Version of 1611 and the original text. 

The English Version, which bears the name of James I. 
(though he had nothing to do with it except to appoint the 
forty-seven translators), is the result of several revisions from 
the time of Tyndale (1525). It is the best version that could 
be made at the beginning of the seventeenth century, and sur- 
passes all other authorized versions in accuracy. It is the first 
of English classics, and so deeply interwoven with English and 
American literature that it can never be ignored, even if the 
Revised Version should supersede it in public use. F. William 
Faber, after his conversion from Anglo-Catholicism to Romanism, 
could not forget its " uncommon beauty and marvellous English." 

stantialis) for daily bread (in the Lord's Prayer), " impudicity " {hnpudici- 
tia) for uncleanness (Gal. 5 : 19), " eontristate " (contristare) for grieve the 
Holy Spirit (Eph. 4 : 30), " exinanite " (exinanivit seipsum) for emptied him- 
self (Phil. 2 : 7 ; in later editions, " debased himself "), "prepuce " for fore- 
skin, "pasch" for passover, "breads of proposition" for shew breads, 
"holocaust" for burnt-offering, "agnition," "azims," "scenopegia." The 
Rheims-Douay Bible has, however, undergone improvements in later edi- 
tions, and most of these Latinisms have given way to idiomatic terms ; but 
some still remain, as " supersubstantial " for daily (in Matt. 6 : 11). 



THE ENGLISH VERSION AND REVISION. 191 

But the received English Version has its imperfections, like 
everything human. The chief defects may be classified as fol- 
lows : 

1. It rests upon the unre vised textus receptus (the Masoretic 
text in the Old Testament, and the editions of Stephens and 
Beza in the New Testament). It was made before the science 
of textual criticism was born, before the oldest manuscripts 
were discovered, and before the ancient translations and patris- 
tic quotations were properly examined. 

2. It has many obsolete and unintelligible words and phrases, 
such as " besom " (broom), " bewray " (betray), " bosses " (knobs), 
"botch" (boil), "cabins" (cellars), "cankerworm" (caterpillar), 
"chapiter" (capital), "chapman" (trader), "clouts" (patches), 
"daysman" (arbitrator), "earing" (ploughing), "knop" (bud), 
"minish" (diminish), "neesing" (sneezing), "ware" (aware), 
"to fetch a compass" (to make a circuit). 

3. It uses familiar words in a different sense from what they 
now have, as "atonement" for reconciliation, "coast" for bor- 
der, " prevent " for precede, "let" for hinder, "conversation" 
for conduct, "damn" and "damnation" for condemn and con- 
demnation, " carriage " for baggage, " nephews " for grandchil- 
dren, "to wit" for to know, "by-and-by " for immediately, "by 
myself" for against myself (1 Cor. 4:4), " instantly " for ur- 
gently, "lively" for living, " sometimes " for once, "charger" 
for platter, "to hail" for to drag (Luke 12 : 58 ; Acts 8:3), 
" his " for its, " lunatic " (moonstruck) for epileptic, " occupy " 
for trade, "painful" for toilsome, "quick" for living, "turtle" 
for turtle-dove, "wench" for maid-servant (2 Sam. 17:17), 
" well " for spring, " witty " for clever. 

4. It occasionally employs unseemly phrases in the Old Tes- 
tament which can scarcely be read without offense in the fam- 
ily or pulpit (1 Sam. 25 : 22, 34 ; 1 Kings 14 : 10 ; 2 Kings 9:8; 
18 : 27 ; Isa. 36 : 12). 

5. It creates artificial distinctions which do not exist in the 
original, by translating the same word by different words, 
where it has the same meaning. 

Examples: "Eternal" and "everlasting" (aluviog, Matt. 25: 
46); "overseer" and "bishop" (errioKOTcog, Acts 22:28; Phil. 
1:1; 1 Tim. 3:1, etc.); "Passover" and "Easter" (ndoxa, 
Matt. 26 : 2, etc. ; Acts 12 : 4) ; " atonement," "reconciling," and 
" reconciliation " (KaraXXayrj, Rom. 5 : 11 ; 11 : 15 ; 2 Cor. 5 : 18, 



192 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

19); "comforter" and "advocate" (TrapdtckrjTog, John 14:16, 
etc., used of the Holy Spirit; 1 John 2:1, used of Christ). 
Aoyog has no less than twenty-three renderings ; rvnog, eight ; 
ox^og, six; naidionr], five; /ievw, ten, etc. The Hebrew "Sheol" 
is translated by three words, " hell," " grave " and " pit." 

Needless variations are also introduced in proper names, as 
Elijah and Elias; Elisha and Eliseus ; Jeremiah, Jeremias and 
Jeremy; Timotheus and Timothy. "Jesus" is substituted for 
Joshua, Acts 7 : 45 and Heb. 4:8. 

6. It obliterates or obscures real distinctions of the original 
in translating two or more Hebrew or Greek words by one 
and the same English word, such as "hell" for both Hades 
(Sheol, the spirit- world) and Gehenna (the place of torment) ; 
"devil" and "devils" for the one devil and for the many de- 
mons or evil spirits ; " beasts " for wild beasts (Orjpia), and the 
beast from the abyss (6rjpiov 7 Rev. 13 : 1, 2, etc.), and the liv- 
ing creatures before the throne of God ((wa, Rev. 4 : 6, etc.) ; 
" crown" for crown (arecpavog) and diadem (diddrjfia) • " servant" 
for servant (diaKovog) and bondman (6ov?,og). 

7. It contains a vast number of inaccurate or inadequate 
translations, especially through disregard of the Greek article, 
the Greek tenses and particles, which were imperfectly under- 
stood at the time. 

Examples of the neglect of the article : " Christ " instead of 
the Christ (the official title) ; " a law " instead of the law (of 
Moses); "many" (opposed to few) instead of the many, that 
is, all (opposed to " the one," Adam or Christ, in Rom. 5 : 15-19 ; 
comp. 1 Cor. 15 : 22) ; " the root " instead of a root (1 Tim. 
6 : 10) ; " the woman " instead of a woman (John 4 : 27). 

Examples of the neglect of the tenses, that is the distinc- 
tions between the narrative aorist (or preterit for completed 
action), imperfect (incomplete or continuous action), perfect 
(an act or event continued in its effects), and the pluperfect : 
direOdvo/jLev rq dfiapria, we who died to sin (at the time of our 
conversion), not " are dead " (which substitutes a state or con- 
dition for a past act or event), Rom. 6:2, 7, 8 ; Gal. 2 : 19 ; 
Col. 2 : 20 ; 3 : 1, 3 ; rjpaprov, they sinned, not " have sinned," 
Rom. 5 : 12 ; arroOavovTeq, having died, not " being dead," 
Rom. 7:6; eIo vnep Ttdvruv direOavev, dpa ol ndvrsg dneOavov, 
one died for all, therefore all died, not " then were all dead," 
2 Cor. 5 : 14 ; kudXovv, they were calling, not " called," Luke 



THE ENGLISH VERSION AND REVISION. 193 

1 : 59 ; ervnre to orrjdog avrov, he kept smiting his breast, not 
" smote." Luke 18 : 13 3 rjpxovro, they were going, not " they 
went," John 6 : 17. 

The prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions and adverbs are 
likewise very often confounded or mistranslated. 

8. A considerable number of false and misleading transla- 
tions. 

Examples from the Old Testament : " apothecary " for per- 
fumer (Ex. 30 : 25) j " borrow " for ask (Ex. 11:2); " dragons " 
for monsters (Ps. 74 : 13) ; " foxes " for jackals (Judg. 15:4); 
" grove" and "groves" for pillar (or Asherah, Asherim and 
Asheroth, which denote the wooden symbols of a goddess, 
Judg. 2:17; Ex. 34:13, etc.); "galleries" for curls of hair 
(Cant. 7:5); " hell " or " pit "or" grave " for Sheol (the under- 
world or state of the departed, corresponding to the Greek 
Hades, the unseen world of the dead); "hypocrite" for un- 
godly (Job 8 : 13, etc.) ; "meat offering" for meal offering (Ex. 
30 : 9, etc.) ; " owl " for ostrich (Lev. 11 : 16) ; " plain of Mamre " 
for oaks of Mamre (Gen. 18 : 1) ; " paper reeds " for meadows 
(Isa. 19 : 7) ; "river of Egypt" (the Nile) for brook of Egypt 
(Num. 34 : 5) ; " satyrs " for he-goats (Isa. 13 : 21) ; " spider " for 
lizard (Prov. 30 : 28) ; "unicorn" for wild ox (Num. 23 : 22). 

Examples from the New Testament : "all the children " for 
all the male children (rovg naldag, Matt. 2:16); "ship" for 
boat (4:21, 22, and often); "before instructed" for urged or 
impelled (14 : 8) ; " strain at a gnat " (probably a printing error) 
for strain out a gnat (23 : 24) ; " testament " for covenant (26 : 
28, etc.) ; " taxing " for enrolment (Luke 2:2); " search " for ye 
search (John 5 : 39 ; the Greek epewdre admits of both transla- 
tions, but the context and the known zeal of the scribes for a 
pedantic study of the letter of the Old Testament require the 
indicative rather than the imperative rendering); "one fold" 
for one flock (John 10 : 16, -noi\ivr] 1 not av\r\, a mischievous er- 
ror copied from the Vulgate ovile) ; " supper being ended" for 
during supper (13 : 2 comp. 26) ; " such as should be saved" for 
were being saved (in the process of salvation, Acts 2 : 47) ; 
"Easter" for Passover (12:4); "too superstitious" for some- 
what superstitious or overreligious (17 : 22) ; " hold " for hold 
down or hinder (narexetv, Rom. 1 : 18) ; " remission of sins " for 
praetermission or passing over (dia rr/v -dpeaiv, Rom. 3 : 25) ; 
"made himself of no reputation" for emptied himself (eavrbv 



194 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

eftevuoe, Phil. 2:7); u conversation " for citizenship (noXiTevfia, 
3 : 20) ; " vile body" for body of humiliation (3 : 21) ; " gain is 
godliness" for godliness is a way of gain (1 Tim. 6:5); "took 
on him," a double error for takes hold of, helps (eni?.a^l3dveraL ? 
Heb. 2:16); "answer" for interrogation, inquiry or seeking 
after God (enepti -7}\ia, 1 Pet. 3 : 21). 

These defects and many more are nearly all corrected in the 
Anglo-American Revision which was begun in 1870 and com- 
pleted in 1885. It is now very generally used as a commentary 
on the received version, and will ultimately supersede it. It is 
far more thorough than the official Revision of Luther's Version, 
which was undertaken by the Eisenach Church Conference in 
1855, provisionally printed as "Probebibel" in 1883, and pub- 
lished in its final shape at Halle, 1892. 

For further information on the Anglo-American Eevision of the received 
version, see Philip Schaff (President of the American Committee on 
Eevision) : Companion to the Greek Testament and the English Version (New 
York and London, 1883, 4th revised ed. 1892), chapters VII. and VIII. (pp. 
299-496), and Dr. Talbot W. Chambers (a member of the Old Testament 
Company of Revisers) : A Companion to the Revised Old Testament, New 
York, 1885. 

CHAPTER CXXI. 

PHILOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL EXEGESIS. 

Philological or grammatical, and historical (grammatico-his- 
torical) exegesis is chiefly concerned with verbal and critical 
questions. It ascertains the trne reading j brings ont the 
meaning of words and phrases, according to the general rules 
of grammar and the usus loquendi of the writer, his age and 
country ; explains the psychological situation of the writer, the 
historical surroundings of the book, and the state of society and 
religion in which it was written. It must stick closely to the 
text in its direct aspect and bearing, and be free from dogmatic 
and sectarian prejudice. It is the basis of all sound interpreta- 
tion. It requires a thorough knowledge of Semitic languages 
for the Old Testament, and of classical and Hellenistic Greek 
for the New. 

Grammatical exegesis was scarcely known in the first three 
centuries, or made subordinate to allegorical and practical ex- 
position. It began properly in the Antiochian School (Chrysos- 



THEOLOGICAL EXEGESIS. 195 

torn, Theodore of Mopsuestia, and Theodoret). It was not un- 
known to Jerome, who had a rare genius for languages and 
knew the Bible lands from personal observation, but was in- 
consistent, timid, anxiously concerned for his orthodoxy, and 
often wandered into allegorizing. It was well-nigh forgotten 
in the middle ages, together with the knowledge of Greek and 
Hebrew, till the time of the Revival of Letters. The Reformers 
felt the primary importance of sound grammatical exposition ; 
Calvin practiced it with full faith in the divine truths of the 
Bible ; the Arminians (Grotius, etc.) cultivated it with the aid 
of classical learning, but on a lower theory of inspiration ; the 
Rationalists used and abused it in opposition to orthodoxy. A 
new epoch of grammatical exegesis was introduced by Winer's 
Grammar of the New Testament idiom, which made an end to 
the arbitrary handling of the Hellenistic dialect by the earlier 
Rationalists. 

CHAPTER CXXII. 

THEOLOGICAL EXEGESIS. 

Theological exegesis draws out and unfolds the religious and 
moral ideas or doctrines of the text, considered in themselves 
and in connection with the general teaching of the Scriptures, 
according to the analogy of faith ; yet not in any sectarian in- 
terest. This requires congeniality of mind or intelligent sym- 
pathy with the spirit and aim of the sacred authors. 

Theology transcends, but does not contradict, grammar and 
logic. It is the logic of God. The spiritual sense of the Bible 
must be fairly deducible from, and be in harmony with, the lit- 
eral. The Bible undoubtedly has a soul as well as a body ; but 
the soul lives in the body, not out of it. The allegorical inter- 
pretation is wrong, not in maintaining a sense deeper than the 
letter, but in arbitrarily putting a subjective idea or fancy into 
the word, instead of taking the objective meaning of the Spirit 
out of the word. 

The Bible is a unit, not a dead, mechanical unit, but a living 
organism with many members, each having its special office 
and use. There is in the Old Testament a Patriarchal, a Mo- 
saic, a Prophetic, an Exilic and post-Exilic theology ; and there 
is in the New Testament a theology of Jesus (Synoptic and Jo- 



196 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

hannean), a theology of James, of Peter, of Paul and of John. 
Theological exegesis has to nnfold the variety as well as the 
unity and harmony of Scripture teaching. 



CHAPTER CXXIII. 

PRACTICAL AND HOMILETICAL EXEGESIS. 

This is the application of the Word of God to the religious 
wants of the people, on the basis of a sound philological and 
theological interpretation, and belongs properly to the pulpit. 

It is the oldest form of exegesis both among Jews and 
Christians ; for the Bible was written and read for edification 
and comfort (comp. 2 Tim. 3 : 15, 16 ; Rom. 15:4; 2 Pet. 
1 : 19). It is also the last form, to which the other two look 
forward. Exegetical science must benefit the Church. The 
professor's chair should never lose sight of the preacher's 
pulpit. 

The three kinds of exegesis should agree. A vast amount of 
practical exegesis, as found even in some of the greatest sermons, 
is based upon allegorical fancies. These must be avoided. The 
homiletical use of a passage must either be consistent with the 
plain grammatical sense, or it must not pretend to be an inter- 
pretation, but simply an extension and application. The word 
of God needs no fanciful and arbitrary helps ; it has of itself 
an endless applicability to all classes and conditions of men, 
Like a diamond, it casts its lustre whichever way you turn it. 

CHAPTER CXXIY. 

EXHAUSTIVE COMMENTARIES. 

The ideal of a commentary would be a combination of the 
philological, theological, and practical exegesis, under three dis- 
tinct divisions, with a critically revised text as the basis. The 
practical division should be confined to brief hints and sugges- 
tions, not a substitute for, but a stimulus to, preparation for the 
pulpit and the Bible class. 



EXEGESIS OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 197 

CHAPTER CXXV. 

POPULAR COMMENTARIES. 

The rapid growth of the theological lay public in Protestant 
countries, and the large number of Sunday-schools and Bible 
classes, call for popular commentaries on the whole Scriptures, 
especially on the historical books. 

The object of a popular commentary should be to present in 
brief the clean results of the latest biblical researches, without 
the critical apparatus, for the instruction and edification of the 
general reader. The value depends on accuracy, clearness, 
point, and a devout spirit, which should prevade the whole. It 
is better to edify indirectly by sound instruction, than to have 
a separate department of practical remarks or improvements, 
although these have their uses and are preferred by many. 

CHAPTER CXXVI. 

EXEGESIS OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 

The key to the true exposition of the Old Testament we find 
in the New Testament. It is contained in the declaration of 
Christ, Matt. 5 : 17 : "I came not to destroy the law or the 
prophets, but to fulfill." Christ is the fulfiller of the Scriptures : 
he is the light which illuminates every page ; without it, they 
remain a sealed book. The Old Covenant is a preparation for 
the New, the New Covenant is the fulfillment of the Old. They 
are one in the idea of Covenant, different as Old and New. 
u Veins Testamentum in Novo patet, Novum Testamentum in Vetere 
latet" (Augustin). 

Paul represents the law as a schoolmaster to lead men to 
Christ (Gal. 3 : 24). Christ and the Apostles see in the Old 
Scriptures the Word of God spoken through his servants Moses 
and the Prophets (Acts 1 : 16 ; 3 : 7 ; 4 : 7 ; 9 : 8). " Moses wrote 
of me," says Christ (John 5 : 46). " Holy men spake from God, 
being moved by the Holy Spirit" (2 Pet. 1 : 21). 

But the Old Testament is not the final revelation of God ; it 
is full of pregnant hints to the future ; it is Messianic in its 
predictions, its institutions and ceremonies ; even the law points 



198 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

beyond itself to the gospel. So the Apostles find everywhere 
Christ in the Old Testament, but Christ in his preparatory 
stages, Christ foreshadowed, Christ coming, not Christ come. 

The exegesis of our Saviour is wonderful. He reveals depth 
in the Scriptures undreamed of before, yet without any unnat- 
ural allegorizing or putting anything into the Word, but by 
taking out its deepest sense and making it so plain as to excite 
our astonishment that we never saw it before. Examples : In 
Matt. 22 : 32, he proves before the Sadducees the resurrection 
from the Pentateuch, from the designation of God as "the G-od 
of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob," for " God is not the God of the 
dead, but of the living." In the same chapter, ver. 42-45, he 
argues before the Pharisees his own divinity from Ps. 110, 
where David calls the Messiah his Lord. 

Matt. 5 : 17 implies the unity as well as the difference of the 
two covenants. 

False interpretations of the Old Testament as a whole, ignore 
either the unity or the difference. 

1. The harmony of the Old and New Testaments may be 
denied by the Gnostic heresy and those pseudo-Pauline Ra- 
tionalists, who make Christianity something abrupt and sud- 
den. The Gnostics rejected the Old Testament altogether as 
the work of the demiurge. 

2. The difference may be obliterated in two ways : 

(a) By lowering the New Testament to the level of the Old 
and making Christianity a mere completion or improvement of 
Judaism. So Ebionism and all Judaizing schools of theology. 

(b) By raising the Old Testament to the position of the New 
and making it already teach the specific doctrines of Christian- 
ity and the experience of Christian believers. This has been 
done mainly through means of the allegorizing method. The 
old orthodoxy, Catholic and Protestant, used the Old Testa- 
ment and the New for doctrinal proof -texts without the least 
discrimination, and found the doctrine of the Trinity in the 
plural name of God (Elohim), the three guests of Abraham, and 
the trisagion of Isaiah. In this way the originality of the 
New Testament is destroyed. 

Scripture is the record of a progressive revelation of God, 
who, as a wise educator, adapted himself to the capacity of his 
people. " God, having of old time spoken unto the fathers in 
the prophets by divers portions and in divers manners, hath at 



HISTORY OF EXEGESIS. 199 

the end of these days spoken nnto us in his Son " (Heb. 1 : 1, 2). 
Even Christ did not reveal the whole truth to the disciples 
while on earth. He left many things unsaid, because they could 
not bear them (John 16 : 12), but he promised them the Holy 
Spirit, who would teach them all things and bring to their 
remembrance all he said unto them (John 14 : 26 3 15 : 26 j 
16 : 7-14). And even the pentecostal illumination did not super- 
sede the need of special revelations, such as the one given to 
Peter at Joppa concerning the admission of Gentiles, or those 
given to Paul at critical epochs in his life, or that of the seer of 
the Apocalypse concerning the struggles and final triumph of 
the Church. 

It is the office of the interpreter to follow these progressive 
periods of divine revelation and to show their difference as well 
as their connection. "Distingue tempora, et concordaUt Scrip- 
tura" (Augustin). 

CHAPTER CXXVII. 

HISTORY OF EXEGESIS. 

The history of biblical interpretation is a history of misin- 
terpretation as well. No book has been so much misunder- 
stood and abused as the Bible. There are commentaries which 
shed light upon the Bible, and other commentaries which ob- 
scure the light of the Bible or pervert its true meaning. Christ 
charged the scribes of his day, that they " have made void the 
word of God, because of their tradition" (Matt. 15 : 6). They 
searched the Scriptures, and yet would not come to Christ (John 
5 : 39, 40). They built a stone wall around the law so that no- 
body could get at it and see it face to face. The same story 
has been repeated in the history of the Christian Church. The 
mediaeval papacy erected hierarchical, patristic, scholastic, and 
ritualistic forts around the Bible. It required all the courage and 
energy of Luther, Zwingli and Calvin to storm these forts and 
to open the treasures of the divine book to the people. There 
is no heresy that has not been read into the Bible and defended 
by the Bible. All churches and sects of Christendom appeal to 
it alike for support. 

It is one of the strongest arguments for the divine origin and 
imperishable value of the Bible that it has outlived so many at- 
tacks from without and so many misapprehensions from within. 



200 THEOLOGICAL PROPAEDEUTIC. 

The Bible is no more responsible for its misinterpretations than 
Natnre for the errors and contradictions of scientists. Man 
cannot fly on wings to the monntain-top of knowledge, bnt 
must slowly ascend it step by step. 

The Roman Church maintains "a unanimous consensus of 
the Fathers " in the interpretation of the Bible, and uses the 
confusion among interpreters as an argument against the 
Protestant principle of the supremacy and sufficiency of the 
Bible, as a rule of faith. But the unanimous consensus of the 
Fathers is a fiction of the Council of Trent, which was not 
especially distinguished for exegetical and historical learning. 
The ancient Fathers are worthy of all respect, but they differed 
as widely and erred as frequently in their comments on the 
Scripture as the Reformers. The further up we go, the greater 
is the freedom and variety ; as the oldest manuscripts of the 
Greek Testament present the largest number of textual varia- 
tions. The ablest exegetes among the Fathers are the most inde- 
pendent. The growing principle of church authority and the 
narrowing orthodoxy imprisoned exegesis and kept it confined 
till the Reformation burst the chains and opened the prison door. 
The variety of interpretation is the inevitable result of free- 
dom or the right of private judgment, and of the inexhausti- 
ble depth of the Bible. 

There is, however, a steady progress and approach to agree- 
ment among competent scholars. The Bible languages, ar- 
chaeology, history, and the principles of interpretation are now 
better understood than ever before. Exegesis has become 
almost an exact science in ascertaining the precise meaning of 
the biblical writers. 



CHAPTER CXXVIII. 

JEWISH EXEGESIS. 

Exegesis began among the Jews, to whom were given the 
Scriptures of the Old Covenant. The humble and believing 
souls who waited for the hope of Israel, derived from them 
spiritual nourishment and comfort; but the proud hierarchs 
and pedantic scribes searched only the letter of the Scriptures 
without seeking and finding the Christ to whom they bear wit- 
ness (John 5 : 39). They obscured the true meaning by their 



JEWISH EXEGESIS BEFORE CHRIST. 201 

traditions and made void the word of God. " Then- minds are 
hardened : for until this very day the same veil remaineth un- 
lifted; which veil is done away in Christ" (2 Cor. 3 : 14). 

Nevertheless rabbinical scholarship has been of much use and 
is entitled to a respectful hearing in all matters which relate to 
Hebrew grammar and archaeology. In the middle ages, Jewish 
rabbis had the monopoly of Hebrew learning. They furnished 
the first grammars and dictionaries for the use of Christians. 
To the scrupulous care of the Masoretic scholars we owe the 
Hebrew text of the Old Testament. 

Jewish exegesis may be divided into a pre-Christian and a 
post-Christian period. 

CHAPTER CXXIX. 

JEWISH EXEGESIS BEFORE CHRIST. 

It began soon after the close of the canon. Ezra (B.C. 457), 
the priestly scribe, may be called the first biblical scholar. He 
collected and edited the books of the canon as far as they existed 
at his time. He was regarded as a second Moses and a restorer 
of the law. " He transformed the theocracy into a nomocracy ," 
and raised " the scribe " above " the priest." He organized the 
synagogue-worship and the reading of Moses every Sabbath- 
day. He inaugurated the Midrash and the Targum, that is, the 
body of interpretation, which embraced the entire theological 
and literary wisdom of the Jews. (Ezra 7 : 6, 25 ; Neh. 8 : 7, 8 ; 
13 : 24.) 

The Jewish exegesis referred chiefly to the law (Thorah) and 
determined the individual and social duties and relations by 
deduction from the Pentateuch. It was divided into Halakha, 
i.e., " decision," rule, legalized precept, and Haggada, i.e., " dis- 
course," narration, legend. The former was binding, the lat- 
ter was not. The Halakha is compared to bread, the Haggada 
to water ; the one to an iron fortress, the other to a flowery 
promenade within the fortress. 

The interpretations were first propagated by oral tradition • 
after the time of Christ they were collected in the Mishna, i.e., 
Learning, Repetition (about A.D. 200 or 220), and the Gemara, 
i.e., Completion (A.D. 490). They together constitute the Jewish 
Talmud, or Doctrine (from id^, to teach). 



202 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

There were two kinds of exegesis among the Jews. 

1. The rabbinical or literal exegesis was carried on in 
Palestine by the Pharisees. It excluded all foreign ideas, and 
was subservient to strict legalism and to carnal Messianic ex- 
pectations, which formed the bridge between the past glory and 
the future hope of the Jews over the abyss of their present 
degradation. The spirit was sacrificed to the letter. Distinc- 
tion of two senses, the proper or innate sense (sensus innatus, 
which is again either literal or figurative or mystical), and the 
derived sense (sensus Hiatus), obtained by logical inference or 
linked to the words by arbitrary combination. 

2. The Hellenistic or allegorizing method of Alexandria 
was borrowed from the Stoic and Platonic philosophers, who 
applied it to Homer and the heathen mythology to get rid of 
its incongruities, absurdities, and impossibilities. It began in 
the period of the Apocrypha (comp. Wisdom 18 : 24), and was 
completed by Philo, who died A.D. 40. He held the most rigid 
view of verbal inspiration, but depended on the Septuagint with 
its countless errors, and endeavored to harmonize the Mosaic 
religion with Greek (Platonic) philosophy by means of allegor- 
ical interpretation. He thought that Plato had borrowed from 
Moses. He sacrificed the letter to a foreign spirit. He distin- 
guished between an exoteric and esoteric understanding, in 
other words, between the literal or historical sense * and the 
spiritual or mystic sense.f The latter outruled the former. 
The Old Testament was turned into a storehouse of philosoph- 
ical ideas, which more or less obscured or perverted the religious 
truths of revelation. 

The allegorizing method exerted great influence on Christian 
exegesis, especially upon the Alexandrian school of Clement and 
Origen, and ruled for fifteen hundred years. 

Examples of the allegorical interpretation of Philo : Adam in Genesis 
is the lower, sensuous man, the avdpuwog xomog • Cain, selfishness ; Abel, 
devotion to God ; Noah, righteousness ; Abraham, contemplation and know- 
ledge ; Sarah, virtue ; Hagar, wisdom ; Moses, the prophetic spirit ; Egypt, 
body ; Canaan, piety ; the sheep is the image of the pure soul ; the ring- 
dove, the emblem of divine wisdom ; the house-pigeon, of human wisdom. 

Generally Philo admits the literal sense in the Mosaic history, but 
sometimes, especially in the details, he denies it, where it seemed to imply 

* ij pa]Tr) ep/uyveia, rj prjrrj awodocig. 

t 7) aXkriyopia, rj Tpoiunq, rj ovju(So/uk^ dLTjyrjGig, rj dia tvttuv, did, cvfj,/36Xov aizd- 
deigig. 



JEWISH EXEGESIS AFTER CHRIST. 203 

materialistic, anthropomorphic, anthropopathic, or otherwise unworthy 
ideas of God. Thus, in the account of the creation, only the creative 
act is historic, not the details of the hexahemeron. The trees in paradise, 
the serpent, the expulsion from Eden, are only symbolic representations 
of the truths of a higher life. In such cases the allegorizing method ap- 
proaches the mythical interpretation of Strauss, who denies the super- 
natural facts and admits only the ideas. Comp. C. Siegfried, Philo als 
Ansleger des Alien Test., Jena, 1875. 



CHAPTER CXXX. 

JEWISH EXEGESIS AFTER CHRIST. 

1. The Talmudic interpretation is a continnation of the 
Pharisaic, orthodox, traditional exegesis, partly slavishly lit- 
eral, partly allegorizing. Overestimate of rabbinical learning. 
" Scripture is like water, the Mishna like wine, the Gemara like 
spiced wine." " The Scripture is as salt, the Mishna as pep- 
per, the Gemara as spice." Among the chief Rabbis are Hillel 
(d. A.D. 8) ; Shammai (his rival) ; Johanan ben Zakkai (a pupil 
of Hillel) ; Aqiba (d. 135) ; Juda the holy (or simply the " Rabbi," 
d. 200), who made Tiberias the metropolis of rabbinism and 
compiled the Mishna ; Ashi (d. 427), who chiefly systematized 
and completed the Gemara. The Babylonian Talmud fills 2947 
folio pages, and contains the theology, the law and the cere- 
monial of the Jews. It is a continent of rabbinical wisdom 
and folly. 

2. The sect of the Karaites (the Protestants of Judaism) 
rejected talmudic traditions and aimed at a more simple and 
spiritual view of the Old Testament. 

3 The grammatical school of the middle ages produced 
valuable commentaries, grammars, and dictionaries. It flour- 
ished in Spain, where oriental learning had taken refuge. It 
began to influence Christian exegesis in the fourteenth century. 

Rabbi Saadias Gaon (d. 942), Ibn Ezra (b. at Toledo, 1092, d. 
at Rome, 1167), R. Salomo Isaaki (or Rashi, erroneously called 
Jarchi, d. 1105), David Kimchi (or Qimchi, d. 1190), Maimonides 
(R. Mose ben Maimon, b. at Cordova, 1135, d. in Palestine, 
1204), Abrabanel (1436-1507). Their commentaries are printed 
separately, and collected in the so-called rabbinical Bibles, e.g., 
Buxtorf/Bas. 1618, 3 torn. f. 



204 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

CHAPTER CXXXI. 

EPOCHS OF CHRISTIAN EXEGESIS. 

Christian exegesis has, like every other branch of theological 
science, its creative epochs, followed by periods of preservation 
and assimilation or transition. 

The three prominent epochs are the patristic, the reforma- 
tory, and the modern. 

The first is essentially Catholic (Grgeco-Latin) j the second, 
Protestant and anti-papal; the third, critical and evangelical 
Catholic. The exegesis of the Fathers was matured in the 
victorious conflict with the heresies of Ebionism, Gnosticism, 
Arianism, Pelagianism, etc. ; the exegesis of the Reformers in 
the conflict with the nnscriptnral traditions of Rome ; the 
modern evangelical in the conflict with rationalism in all its 
phases. 

The patristic and reformatory exegetes agree in being pre- 
dominantly doctrinal and practical, and devoted to the divine 
character of the Bible on a common theory of inspiration ; the 
modern Protestant exegesis is grammatico-historical as well as 
theological, and explains the human as well as the divine side 
of the Bible. The older commentators move within opposite 
ecclesiastical and denominational channels ; the best modern 
commentators rise above sectarian and polemical considera- 
tions to the comprehension of revealed truth in its compre- 
hensive catholicity. 

The mediseval exegesis is a continuation of the patristic j the 
exegesis of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is a de- 
velopment of the reformatory, with two branches, Lutheran 
and Reformed. The rationalistic exegesis lies between the sec- 
ond and third epochs, and prepared the way for the modern 
evangelical Catholic exegesis. 

CHAPTER CXXXII. 

PATRISTIC EXEGESIS. A.D. 100-600. 

The first use made of the Bible in the Christian Church was 
practical and homiletical. Then followed the doctrinal use for 
the refutation of heresies. The Old Testament was regarded as a 



PATRISTIC EXEGESIS. A.D. 100-600. 205 

preparation for the New, full of prophecies and types of Christ, 
in opposition to the Jews. The New Testament was vindicated 
against Ebionism, and the harmony of the two Testaments 
against Gnosticism. The fundamental truths were elaborated 
and supported by proof-texts. The grammatical sense was 
neglected. The Greek Fathers had the advantage of a know- 
ledge of the original language of the New Testament ; the 
Latin Fathers depended mostly on the faulty Itala and the 
improved Tulgata of Jerome ; the Hebrew was understood by 
very few. Allegorical fancies were freely substituted for sound 
expositions. 

The most valuable exegetes among the Fathers are Chrysos- 
tom for his homiletical wealth, Jerome for his philological and 
archaeological knowledge, and Augustin for his theological 
depth and spiritual insight.* 

I. The Greek Exegetes. The founder of exegesis proper is Origen 
(180-254), the teacher of the catechetical school of Alexandria, a genius, a 
scholar, and an indefatigable worker. He wrote three kinds of commen- 
taries : Annotations (cnjfieiuaetg, scholia), Commentaries proper (to/hoi), and 
familiar Sermons (6/nt?lat, sermones, tractatus). He founded a theory of in- 
terpretation, based upon that of Philo and the Platonic trichotomy of 
CG)ju,a, tyvxv an( i Kvev/ia. He was a Christian Philo and a Christian Plato, or 
Platonic Christian. Viewing the Bible as a living organism of body, 
soul and spirit, he distinguished three senses : (1) the somatic, or the 
literal, historical ; (2) the psychic, or moral (1 Cor. 9 : 9), and (3) the pneu- 
matic, or spiritual, mystic, usually called allegorical sense (Gal. 4 : 24). 
He abandons the historical sense where it seemed to him inapt (anthro- 
pomorphic, anthropopathic), or morally offensive (aloyog, advvarog, contain- 
ing onavdcika and ■Kpognoufiara) . He mainly dwells on the spiritual or alle- 
gorical sense. 

Two schools of patristic exegesis in the Oriental Church. (Comp. Schaff's 
Church History, II. 793, 813 sqq. ; III. 705 sqq.) 

1. The Alexandrian School followed the allegorical method of Origen. 
To this belong Eusebius (d. 340), Athanasius (d. 373), Basil (d. 379), 
Gregory of Nazianzus (d. 390), Gregory of Nyssa (d. 394), Ephraem Syrus 
(d. 373), Cyril of Alexandria (d. 444). 

2. The Antiochian, or Syrian, School was more sober, grammatico- 
historical, rationalizing, yet practical. *Chrysostom, the prince of Greek 
pulpit orators and commentators, who explained in his Homilies most of 
the books of the New Testament, Diodorus of Tarsus (d. 394), Theodoras 

* The exegetical and other works of Augustin (8 vols.), Chrysostom (6 
vols.), and Jerome (1 vol.), are now accessible to the English reader in 
"the Nicene and Post-Nicene Library," first series ed. by Schaff, second 
series ed. by Schaff & Wace, and published at New York (Christian Litera- 
ture Co.) and Oxford (Parker & Company), 1886 sqq. See also St. Chrysos- 
tom and St. Augustin by Philip Schaff, New York (Thomas Whittaker), 1891. 



206 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

of Mopsuestia (called 6 etjqyqTfc, d. 429), Theodoret of Kyros in Syria 
(d. 457). 

II. Latin Exegetes. Dependent on the Greeks, ignorant of Hebrew 
(except Jerome) and mostly even of Greek; hence worthless in matters 
of grammar and criticism, but rich in doctrinal and practical exposition. 

Tertullian (d. 220), Cyprian (d. 254), Hilary (d. 368), Ambrose (d. 397), 
Pelagins (d. 420), * Jerome (d. 419), the translator of the Latin Vulgate, 
* Augustin (d. 430), Leo I. (d. 461), Gregory I. (d. 604), the last of the 
Fathers and the first of the popes. 

The best patristic commentators admit the correct principle that we 
should first ascertain the historical truth and determine the spiritual sense in 
accordance with it, but they often mistake or pervert the natural sense and 
resort to arbitrary allegorizing. Origen, Chrysostom and Jerome resolve the 
collision between Paul and Peter at Antioch (Gal. 2 : 11-14) into a theat- 
rical farce, and by trying to save the credit of Peter involve both Apostles 
in the charge of hypocrisy. The superior moral sense of Augustin pro- 
tested against this monstrous misinterpretation, but his defective know- 
ledge of the original led him into other errors ; he even opposed from timid 
conservatism Jerome's revision of the old Latin version, which teemed 
with inaccuracies. Pope Gregory — one of the best popes, but excessively 
credulous and superstitious — was the last of the Fathers who produced an 
independent exegetleal work. His exposition of the book of Job (translated 
in 3 vols, for the Oxford "Library of the Fathers," 1844) is useless as 
a commentary, as he knew neither Hebrew nor Greek, but valuable as a 
system of Christian morals (hence called Magna Moralia). He pursues 
the text in three separate threads, the literal, the allegorical, and the 
moral, for the edification of the Church. In the allegorical part he sets forth 
the life of Christ in the history of Job. The names of persons and things 
embody a spiritual meaning : Job represents Christ ; Job's wife, the carnal 
nature ; his seven sons, the apostles or the clergy ; his three daughters, 
the three classes of the faithful laity worshiping the Trinity ; his friends, 
the heretics ; the seven thousand sheep, the perfect Christians ; the three 
thousand camels, the heathen and Samaritans, etc. He deemed the 
question of authorship to be of no more consequence than the enquiry 
about the pen of a great writer ; for the biblical authors were only pens 
of the Holy Spirit. This is a fair specimen of patristic and mediasval 
exegesis. 

We should guard alike against a Eoman Catholic overestimate and a 
Protestant underestimate of the Fathers. Their exegetical writings con- 
tain a vast amount of "gold, silver, and precious stones," but also of 
" wood, hay, and stubble " (1 Cor. 3 : 15). Even in the best of them we find 
profound views mixed with childish fancies. Luther spoke most disparag- 
ingly of the Fathers, except Augustin ; Calvin knew them better and 
prized them higher ; Anglican divines, especially of the high-church 
school, claim them for their via media between Eome and Geneva. Of all 
Protestant divines Bishop Christopher Wordsworth is the greatest admirer 
of the Fathers, and fills his commentary on the Old and New Testament 
with extracts from their writings, with a polemical aim both against Ro- 
manism and German Eationalism. 



MEDIEVAL EXEGESIS. A.D. 600-1500. 207 

CHAPTER CXXXIII. 

MEDLEVAL EXEGESIS. A.D. 600-1500. 

Mediaeval exegesis is a repetition and continuation of patristic 
exegesis. The Schoolmen took the place of the Fathers, and 
analyzed and systematized their labors. Reproduction followed 
production. Exegesis became compilation. Commentaries 
were called " Chains/' binding the Fathers together as so many 
links* 

Chrysostom, Augustin, and Pope Gregory furnished the chief 
material. The favorite books were the Gospels and the Psalms. 

In the Eastern Church the Greek language continued to be 
spoken ; hence the superior value of the exegetical labors of 
(Ecuroenius, Theophylactus, and Euthymius Zigabenus. 

The Western Church Christianized and civilized the bar- 
barians of Europe, built convents, churches, the papal hierarchy 
and the scholastic systems of theology, engaged in the heroic 
crusades, organized monastic orders, and produced self-denying 
missionaries, holy monks, commanding popes and emperors, but 
neglected exegetical and historical studies. There was no taste 
for critical investigation. The eternal truths of the Bible, how- 
ever, could not be forgotten, and inspired all the great enter- 
prises of that period. They shone through the stained glass of 
Gothic windows ; they were expounded in profound theological 
treatises, and expressed in heart-stirring hymns, like the Dies 
Irete, the Stated Meiter, and Jesu dulcis memoriei. Biblical learn- 
ing was the monopoly of the clergy. The laity could not read 
and were even forbidden to read the Bible by the popes, who 
yet constantly quoted, in support of their theocracy, the Old 
Testament and the words of Christ to Peter : " Thou art Rock ; " 
" Feed my sheep." x 

Exegesis was the slave of dogma, and was utilized for the 
support of the Catholic faith of the Church, handed down from 
the Fathers. It was based upon the distinction of a fourfold 
sense of the Bible, as expressed in the mnemonic couplet (at- 
tributed to Nicolas of Lyra) : 

" Liter a gesta doeet ; quid credas, Allegoria ; 
Moralis, quid agas ; quo tendas, Anagogia." 

* Catenae Patrum ; aelpai ruv irarepuv, or <rv'A?.ojal, entro/iai k^7jy^aeo)v. 



203 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

The first sense is the literal or historical (gesta docet) ; the 
other three are ramifications of the spiritual or mystic sense, 
and correspond to the cardinal Christian virtues of faith, hope, 
and love. The allegorical sense strictly so-called refers to faith 
(credenda) ; the moral sense, to charity or good works (agenda), 
the anagogical (uplifting, exalting) sense to hope (speranda and 
desideranda). Thus Jerusalem means, literally, the city in 
Palestine ; allegorically, the Church ; morally, the believing 
soul ; anagogically, the heavenly Jerusalem. Babylon : the city 
on the Euphrates j heathen Some ; the enemies of the Church ; 
eternal perdition. The exodus from Egypt : the historical fact 
in the history of Israel ; the redemption by Christ ; the conver- 
sion of the soul j the departure from this life to the heavenly 
world. 

The fourfold sense was an expansion of the threefold sense 
of Origen. It was suggested by Augustin, and more clearly set 
forth as a hermeneutical canon by Eucherius (d. 450), Cassianus 
(d. 450), and Rabanus Maurus (d. 856). Dante (in the Convito 
and in a letter to Can Grande della Scala) defends it as appli- 
cable to his Divina Commedia. Savonarola's sermons are full 
of the fourfold sense. Luther followed it in his first commen- 
tary on the Psalms (1513) before he became a reformer; he 
distinguished at times even six senses, and only gradually 
emancipated himself from the allegorizing method. 

The mystic sense was the most important in the ages of faith 
and superstition. The commentators feasted upon the bound- 
less wealth of revelation and derived from it lessons of holy 
living and dying. Even errors are overruled for good. Never- 
theless this kind of exegesis turns the Bible into a nasus cerens, 
and makes it a slave of human caprices. By trying to evade 
difficulties, it creates new and greater difficulties. Starting 
from a profound reverence for the spiritual depths of the Bible, 
it destroys 'trust in its plain meaning. It substitutes arbitrary 
imposition for honest- exposition. The Song of Songs and the 
Apocalypse even down to our day have suffered most from 
allegorizing commentaries, which fairly teem with pious sense 
and nonsense. 

I. Greek commentators : (Ecumenius, bishop of Trieca in Thessalia 
(d. about 990), on the Acts and Epistles. — Theophylactus, archbishop of 
Bulgaria (d. 1107), on nearly the whole New Testament. — Euthymius 
Zigabenus, a monk near Constantinople (d. 1118), on the Gospels and the 



THE PERIOD OF THE RENAISSANCE. 209 

Psalms. — Nicephorus compiled an exegetical work from fifty-one writers. 
ChrysOstom was the chief source. A series of Greek " Chains " on the whole 
New Testament was edited by J. A. Cramer, Oxford, 1838, sqq. in 8 vols. 

II. Latin commentators : Walafried Strabo or Strabus (abbot of 
Reiehenau, d. 849), author of the Glossa ordinaria, compiled from Augustin, 
Ambrose, Gregory, Isidor, Beda, Alcuin, and Rabanus Maurus, with 
anonymous glosses, — the chief authority for the following centuries. — 
Anselm of Laox (d. 1117, not to be confounded with the more famous 
Anselm of Canterbury) : Glossa interlinearis, next to the former in popu- 
larity, but defective and uncritical.— Cardinal Hugo de S. Caro (d. 1263) : 
Postilhe in universa Biblia secundum quadruplicem sensum (Venice, 1487, 6 
vols.). He wrote also a Latin Concordance and introduced the chapter 
division, which, like the versicular division of the sixteenth century, is 
unfortunately very faulty. — Thomas Aquinas, "the angelic doctor" and 
standard divine of the Roman Church (d. 1274), compiled a devotional 
and exceedingly popular commentary on the Gospels, called Catena aurea 
in Evangelia (English translation by Pusey, Keble, and Newman, Oxford,. 
1841-45, 4 vols.), and explained also several epistles of Paul. He was a, 
great admirer of Chrysostom, especially of his commentary on Matthew. 
The monkish legend says that St. Paul appeared to him in a dream and told 
him that no one understood him so well ; but he did not correct his errors. 
Thomas says that the name of Paul cannot be of Hebrew origin, because 
the Hebrew lacks the letter P, but it may be from a similar word and mean 
"wonderful" or "elect"; if it be from the Greek, it means "quiet"; if 
Latin, it means "small." He proceeds to show from the Scripture that all 
these meanings suit St. Paul. 

Other biblical scholars of less importance : Cassiodorus (d. 562), the 
Venerable Bede (d. 735), Alcuin (d. 804), St. Bernard (d. 1153 ; Sermons 
on the Canticles), Ruprecht of Deuz (d. 1135), John of Salisbury (d. 1182 ; 
on Paul), Albert the Great (d. 1280 ; on the Prophets, Gospels and Apoc- 
alypse), Bonaventura ("doctor serapliicus" d. 1274; on Ecclesiastes, the 
Gospels of Luke and John, etc.). 

John "Wiclif (d. 1384), one of the Reformers before the Reformation, 
deserves mention as the first translator of the whole Bible (from the Latin 
Vulgate) into English. 



CHAPTER CXXXIV. 

THE PERIOD OF THE RENAISSANCE. 

The Revival of Letters and Arts, which began in Italy and 
spread over Europe during the fourteenth and fifteenth centu- 
ries, roused the spirit of free inquiry, and promoted the cause of 
biblical learning by the cultivation of the original languages. 
The first-frrits were shown in the exegetical works of Nicolas 
Lyra and Laurentius Valla, the last in Reuchlin and Erasmus. 
The German Reuchlin and the Dutch Erasmus, called " the two 



210 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

eyes of Europe/' are the connecting links between the Renais- 
sance and the Reformation, the one by his Hebrew, the other by 
his Greek learning. 

The invention of the printing-press, the art-preserving art, 
gave wings to thought and prepared the way for the general 
circulation and use of the Bible among the laity as well as the 
clergy. The Latin Bible was the first large book that was 
printed (1455) ; but during the first half century of that art not 
a single new and important exegetical work appeared. The 
Church was silently gathering strength for a new productive 
epoch in biblical learning. 

Nicolas of Lyka or Lyranus (" doctor planus et utilis," born at Lyre 
in the diocese of Evreux in Normandy, about 1270, d. at Paris, 1340) : 
Postillce perpetum sive commentaria brevia in universa Biblia (first printed ed. 
Eom. 1471, 5 vols., and very often, last ed. Antwerp, 1634, 6 vols.). He 
was a Franciscan monk, and doctor of theology, and taught with success 
in Paris. He is "the Jerome of the fourteenth century," and marks an 
epoch in the history of exegesis. His knowledge of Hebrew gave rise to 
the unsupported conjecture that he was the son of a Hebrew mother. He 
based his commentary on the original text, and first made use of Jewish 
scholars (especially Eashi) ; yea, he dared sometimes to prefer their expla- 
nations to those of the Fathers. He adopted the seven useless rules of 
Tichonius, and the traditional fourfold sense (in the preface), but main- 
tained that the literal sense is the foundation, and should alone be used 
in proving doctrines. Practically he admitted only two senses, the literal 
(or historical) and the mystical (or typical and prophetical), the latter of 
which must be based upon the former. He complains that the mystical 
sense has been allowed almost to choke (suffocare) the literal. He followed 
the rule : " Scriptura loquitur secundum modum nostrum loquendi." He wrote 
with great modesty, and submitted his works to the decisions of the 
Church ; yet he quietly undermined the exegetical tyranny, and had con- 
siderable influence upon the Reformers. Hence the well-known lines : 

"Si Lyra non lyrasset, Lutherus non saltasset." * 

Laurentius Valla (Lorenzo della Valle, canon of St. John in the 
Lateran, 1406-57), the best Latinist and most independent scholar of his 
age, and the pioneer of historical criticism, who first disproved the fic- 
tion of the Donation of Constantiue, prepared Annotations to the New Tes- 
tament, which were published by Erasmus in 1505. He dared to criticise 
Jerome's Vulgate and St. Augustin, and to doubt the traditional text. 
Bellarmin calls him a forerunner of Luther, but he was simply a skeptical 
humanist, destitute of religious sincerity and moral earnestness. He 

* To which somebody added: " Et totus mundus delir asset." Luther 
greatly admired Lyranus, and closely followed him in his commentary on 
Genesis, almost verse for verse, but he blames him for his dependence on 
Jewish rabbis. 



THE PERIOD OF THE RENAISSANCE. 211 

escaped punishment by a cynical submission to the authority of Mother 
Church and became a secretary of Nicolas V., the liberal patron of the 
Renaissance. 

Jacques Le Fevre (Le-fevre d'Etaples, usually called Faber Stapu- 
lexsis, 1450-1536) made a new Latin translation of the Epistles of Paul 
with a commentary (1512), and the first French version of the entire 
Scriptures (the New Testament in 1523, the Old in 1528), which formed the 
basis of the translation of Olivetan (1535). He was a humanist and pio- 
neer of French Protestantism, though he died in the Roman Catholic 
Church. His exegesis is uncertain and wavering between the old and new 
methods. He proclaimed five years before the Reformation the Protes- 
tant principles of the supremacy of the Bible and of justification by faith, 
and uttered, in his work on Paul, the prophetic word : " The signs of 
the times announce that a Reformation of the Church is near at hand, and 
while God opens new ways for the preaching of the Gospel by the discov- 
eries of the Portuguese and Spaniards, we must hope that he will also visit 
his Church and raise her from the abasement into which she has fallen." 
About the same time, he told his pupil, William Farel, the pioneer of the 
Reformation in French Switzerland : " My son, God will renovate the 
world and you will see it." * He fled from persecution to Strassburg, but 
spent his last years in peace under the protection of Queen Marguerite of 
Navarre in her little capital at Nerac. There Calvin, on his flight from 
Paris in 1533, saw the octogenarian scholar, who, in prophetic vision, 
saluted the youth as the future restorer of the Catholic Church in France, 
and suggested to him to take Melamchthon for his model. 

John Reuchlin (1455-1522), called "the Phcenix of Germany," is the 
father of Hebrew learning in the modern Christian Church, though he must 
share this honor with Pellican. He learned the rudiments of Hebrew from 
John Wessel and from some rabbis. He paid ten gold pieces to a Jew 
for the explanation of a single phrase. On the basis of David Qimchi, he 
wrote a Hebrew grammar and dictionary (1506), from which the Reform- 
ers acquired their knowledge of that language. He was unduly addicted 
to the mysterious superstitions of the Kabala. He had to suffer much 
persecution from the intolerant champions of monastic obscurantism, but 
was supported by all progressive scholars. 

Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466-1536), the prince of the human- 
ists and undisputed sovereign in the realm of letters, published, from a 
few manuscripts at Basel, where he spent the best years of his life, the first 
edition of the Greek Testament (1516), which became the basis of the textus 
receptus and of the Protestant versions. He accompanied this work with a 
new and elegant Latin translation and brief Annotations, which had a large 
circulation and exerted an immense influence, t He also began to publish, in 
1517, Paraphrases on the New Testament (except the Apocalypse), in which 

* " Mon fils, Dieu renouvellera le moncle et tu en seras le temoin." See 
Herminjard, Correspondance cles Reform atenrs clans lespays cle langefrangaise, 
vol. I. (1866), p. 5. 

t Annotationes, with a manifesto of liberal exegesis contra morosos ac 
indoctos. 



212 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

he repeated the text in different words.* His object was practical as well 
as literary. He wished that the theologians might study Christianity from 
its fountain-head, and that the Scriptures might be translated into every 
tongue and put into the hands of every reader, to give strength and com- 
fort to the husbandman at his plough, to the weaver at his shuttle, to the 
traveler on his journey. Tyndale echoed this noble desire when he said : 
" If God spare my life, ere many years I will cause the boy that driveth the 
plough to know more of Scripture than you do," speaking to one of those 
ignorant priests who " prefer the laws of the pope to the laws of God." 

Erasmus lived and died on the threshold of the middle ages and modern 
times. Stunica said by way of reproach : "Erasmus lutherissat" ; Erasmus 
replied: u Lutherus erasmissat." He displeased both parties. The Roman- 
ists charged him with laying the egg which Luther hatched ; the Protes- 
tants called him a traitor to the Reformation ; but Zwingli and Melanch- 
thoE never lost respect for him and his eminent services. His work was a 
necessary literary preparation for the greater work of the Reformers. He 
raised Greece from the dead "with the New Testament in her hand." 



CHAPTER CXXXV. 

EXEGESIS OF THE REFORMERS. 

Humanism was an important intellectual factor in the Ref- 
ormation, but could never have produced it. The deeper roots 
of this movement were moral and religious. The Renaissance 
was a revival of classical heathen learning, the Reformation was 
a revival of primitive Christianity. As the literature of ancient 
Greece and Rome preceded the advent of Christianity, so a re- 
vival of that literature preceded and prepared the way for a 
revival of Christianity. The Greek language furnished the key 
to both. 

The Reformation of the sixteenth century, by raising the 
standard of the Bible, as the sovereign rule of Christian faith 
and life, in opposition to the yoke of papal and scholastic 
tyranny, kindled an intense enthusiasm for biblical studies. 
It cleared away the obstructions of traditional dogmatism and 
brought the believer into direct contact with the Word of God 

* In his own definition : u ita temper are Trapafypaotv, ne fiat Tzapatypovrioiq, li.e. 
sic aliter dicer e ut non clicas alia." Luther, in his wrath, called the Para- 
phrases of Erasmus Paraphroneses (derangements, deliria) ; but Herder 
deemed them worth their weight in gold, and Reuss calls them " an ines- 
timable benefit " to that age. Leo Judae translated them into German. By 
a royal injunction of 1547, a copy of the Paraphrase on the Gospels was 
set up in every church of England for the use of the parishioners. Hard- 
wick, Hist, of the Reform., p. 195, note 1 (Stubbs' ed.). On the value of 
these Paraphrases see also R. Stahelin in Herzog, 2d ed., IV. 283 sq. 



EXEGESIS OF THE REFORMERS. 213 

in the original Hebrew and Greek, and in idiomatic vernacular 
versions. It enabled him to drink from the fresh fountain in- 
stead of the muddy river, and to walk in the daylight of the sun 
instead of the night-light of the moon and the stars. 

The Reformers were all in full sympathy with the spirit of 
the Bible, as witnessing, in unbroken harmony, that Jesus of 
Nazareth is the Son of the living God and the Saviour of man- 
kind. To them Christ was the beginning, the middle, and the 
end of the written revelation, yet not in the way of forced alle- 
gorical interpretation. They had a sound instinct for the 
natural grammatical sense and laid aside arbitrary allegorizing, 
though not entirely. 

The Bible was made the chief object of theological study, and 
a book of the people as well as the clergy. Exegesis, heretofore 
confined to the Greek and Latin languages and to scholars, was 
carried on for the benefit of laymen as well as ministers. But 
it was also often abused for polemical purposes and made to 
promote disunion rather than union among Christians. 

Luther is the prince of translators, Calvin the prince of 
commentators, among the Reformers. Melanchthon, Zwingli, 
(Ecolampadius and Beza occupy, next to them, the highest rank 
as expounders of the Scripture. 

I. Exegesis in the Lutheran Church. Martin Luther (1483-1546) gave 
to the German people an idiomatic version of the Old and New Testaments 
(begun at the Wartburg, 1522, and finished at Wittenberg, 1534, last re- 
vision, 1545). It is his best and most useful work and an immortal monu- 
ment of his genius, industry and piety. His commentaries on Galatians 
(which he called his "wife,"), Psalms and Genesis are original, deep, fresh 
and suggestive, but unequal and irregular. He often hits the nail on the 
head, but as often wanders away from the text, using or abusing it as a 
mere starting-point for polemical excursions against Papists and radical 
Protestants (Schwarm — und Rottengeister). He condemned allegorizing as 
a monkey-game (Affenspiel), but often resorted to it in Job, the Psalms 
and Canticles. He was at times slavishly traditional and literal, at times 
boldly independent and spiritual. He objected to some parts of the Bible 
(Esther, James, Hebrews, Apocalypse), and anticipated modern criticism, 
but had the profoundest reverence for the word of God in the Bible. 

Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560) was a superior philologist and the 
best Greek scholar of his age. He thought in Greek, and could hardly 
write a letter to a learned friend without inserting a rare Greek word or 
phrase. He maintained the correct principles, that "the Scripture cannot 
be understood theologically unless it be first understood grammatically," 
and that "the Scripture had one certain and simple sense" (una certa et 
simplex sententia), which must be ascertained by the laws of grammar and 



214 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

rhetoric. But he required piety as well as knowledge of the grammar. 
Diestel gives him credit for having clearly pointed out the unity of the 
sense of the Scripture under the influence of his classical studies. Yet 
his brief comments are meager and dogmatical rather than grammatical. 
His Loci tlieologici grew out of his lectures on the Epistle to the Eomans. 

Secondary Lutheran commentators : Bugenhagen (d. 1558), Brenz (d. 
1570), Flacius, the author of the Clavis Scripturce Sacrce (d. 1575), Chemnitz 
(d. 1586), Chytreeus (d. 1600), Osiander (d. 1604). 

II. Reformed Church. The Reformed exegesis was less dogmatical and 
more grammatico-historical than the Lutheran. 

John Calvin (1509-64) is the first commentator of the sixteenth cent- 
ury, and both for quantity and quality has no superior in ancient or mod- 
ern times. This is the unanimous judgment of competent scholars of dif- 
ferent schools (like Scaliger, Tholuck, Winer, Diestel, Meyer, Reuss, Merx, 
Farrar) and expository preachers (like Spurgeon, who calls him "the 
most candid" commentator and of "priceless value "). His knowledge of 
the Bible as a whole and in all its parts is amazing and unsurpassed. He 
combined all the hermeneutical qualifications : classical culture, knowledge 
of Greek and Hebrew, mastery of Latin and French, familiarity with the 
best of the Fathers, fairness, freedom from prejudice, exegetical tact, acute 
perception, sound judgment, lucid method, spiritual insight, and profound 
sympathy with the biblical authors, especially Paul. He commented on 
the most important books of the Old Testament, and the whole New Tes- 
tament, except the Apocalypse. Diestel calls him " the creator of modern 
exegesis." (See his Geschiclite cles A. T.'s in der christl. Kirche, pp. 267 sqq., 
and Schaffs Clmrcli Hist. VII. 524-538.) A complete English translation 
of Calvin's commentaries in 45 vols, was published by the Calvin Trans- 
lation Society at Edinburgh, 1844 sqq. 

Zwingli (1484-1531), the Reformer of Zurich and German Switzerland, 
had superior classical culture, was a great admirer of Erasmus, copied the 
Greek text of the Epistles of Paul at Einsiedeln (1516, before he had heard 
of Luther), and studied the Scriptures with a reverent and independent 
spirit for the practical purpose that he might "preach Christ from the 
fountain." He began with a continuous exposition of the Gospel of 
Matthew, while Luther and Melanchthon started from the Epistles to the 
Romans and Galatians. His commentaries on Genesis, the Psalms, 
Isaiah, Jeremiah, and several epistles, show sound common sense, sober 
judgment, and a preference for the simple, obvious sense, but are brief, 
fragmentary and immature. He died in the prime of manhood on the 
battlefield of Cappel. 

John OScolampadius (1482-1531), the Reformer of Basel, was the best 
Hebrew scholar of his age, and well acquainted with the Fathers. He 
wrote useful commentaries on Genesis and the Larger and Minor Prophets, 
and ably defended the figurative interpretation of the words of institu- 
tion in the eucharistic controversy. 

Theodore Beza (de Beze, 1519-1605), the friend and successor of Cal- 
vin, combined rare classical culture with a rigorous theology. He edited 
several standard editions of the Greek Testament, a new Latin version, 
and a brief commentary (1565 sqq.), which were very popular in the Re- 
formed Churches of the Continent, and especially in England during the 



PROTESTANT EXEGESIS. 215 

reign of Elizabeth. He exerted considerable influence upon the Geneva 
English Version (1557), and the Authorized Version of 1611, not always 
for the best. 

Minor exegetes : Martin Bucer (d. 1551), the Strassburg Reformer and 
mediator between Luther and Zwingli, at last professor in Cambridge ; 
Pellican (d. 1556), a self-taught Hebraist, professor at Zurich, who com- 
mented on the whole Bible (1532-39, 7 vols.) ; Bibliander (d. 1564), like- 
wise professor at Zurich, an Erasmian rather than a Calvinist ; and Henry 
Bullinger (d. 1575), the friend and successor of Zwingli, and best known 
as the author of the Second Helvetic Confession (1566). 

"William Tyndale (d. 1536) deserves an honorable place among the 
primary translators and secondary Eeformers. By his New Testament 
(1525) he shaped the idiom of the Authorized Version of 1611. 

In his Obedience of a Christian Man, written in 1528 (ed. by the " Parker 
Society," 1848, p. 303 sq.), he lays down his hermeneutical principles in 
the following remarkable passage : " The Papists divide the Scriptures 
into four senses, the literal, tropological, allegorical, and anagogical. The 
literal sense is become nothing at all, for the pope hath taken it clean 
away, and has made it his possession. He hath partly locked it up with 
the false and counterfeited keys of his traditions, ceremonies, and feigned 
lies ; and partly driveth men from it with violence of sword : for no man 
dare abide by the literal sense of the text, but under a protestation, ' If 
it shall please the Pope.' The tropological sense pertaineth to good 
manners (say they), and teacheth what we ought to do. The allegory is 
appropriate to faith ; and the anagogical to hope, and things above. Trop- 
ological and anagogical are terms of their own feigning, and altogether 
unnecessary. For they are but allegories, both two of them; and this 
word allegory comprehendeth them both, and is enough. For tropological 
is but an allegory of manners ; and anagogical, an allegory of hope. And 
allegory is as much to say as strange speaking, or borrowed speech. . . . 

" Thou shalt understand, therefore, that the Scripture hath but one sense, 
which is the literal sense. And that literal sense is the root and ground of 
all, and the anchor that never faileth, whereunto if thou cleave, thou canst 
never err or go out of the icaij. Neverthelater, the Scripture uses proverbs, 
similitudes, riddles, or allegories, as all other speeches do ; but that which 
the proverb, similitude, riddle or allegory signifieth, is ever the literal 
sense, which thou must seek out diligently : as in the English we borrow 
words and sentences of one thing, and apply them unto another, and give 
them new significations." 



CHAPTER CXXXVI. 

PROTESTANT EXEGESIS OF THE SEVENTEENTH TO THE MIDDLE 
OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 

The seventeenth centnry is the period of Protestant scholas- 
ticism. It furnishes a parallel to the Catholic scholasticism of 
the Middle Ages, but is much richer in biblical learning. Its 



216 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

exegesis bears the same relation to the exegesis of the Reform- 
ers (henceforward revered as protestant Fathers) as the 
mediaeval exegesis to the patristic. It has the prevailing char- 
acter of reproduction, compilation, and confessional contraction. 
It was based on a mechanical theory of verbal inspiration or 
dictation, which was most minutely formulated, and acted as a 
check upon independent research. An infallible Book was set 
over against an infallible Church. The Protestant Confessions 
of Faith acquired the authority of Catholic tradition. Exegesis 
was controlled by dogmatic systems and made subservient to 
polemic confessionalism. The Bible was used as a repository 
of doctrinal proof -texts, without discrimination between the Old 
and New Testaments, and between the different books. A vast 
amount of patient, pedantic, antiquarian learning was accumu- 
lated. The exegetical compilations of Calovius and the Critici 
Sacri correspond to the Catenae Patrum of the Middle Ages. 

1. The Lutheran Church took the lead in Protestant scholas- 
ticism. She claimed the monopoly of orthodoxy or doctrinal 
purity, in opposition to Romanism and Calvinism, and assumed 
that all orthodox Christians are Lutherans, either consciously, 
or unconsciously under other names. Luther's version of the 
Bible, which he himself had improved in every successive edi- 
tion, became as unchangeably fixed as the textus receptus of 
the Greek Testament and as the Latin Vulgate. Adam, Noah, 
Abraham, Moses and the prophets were pressed into the service 
of pure unmixed Lutheranism. Calixtus advocated a more lib- 
eral tendency on the broad basis of the oecumenical creeds, but 
was silenced as a dangerous syncretist and latitudinarian. 

The Pietistic school of Spener and Francke broke down the 
dominion of scholasticism and symbololatry, laid stress on ex- 
perimental piety as the key to the understanding of the Script- 
ures, and developed practical and devotional exegesis. 

The best Lutheran commentator of the eighteenth century 
was Bengel, a pietest of the Swabian type. His hermeneutic 
principle was : to exhibit the force and significance of the words 
of the text, so as to express everything which the author in- 
tended, and to introduce nothing which he did not intend. 

After Bengel the old Tubingen school of Storr and Flatt 
maintained a moderate orthodoxy against the rising tide of 
Rationalism which broke in with Semler and gradually flooded 
Germany. 



PROTESTANT EXEGESIS. 217 

2. The Reformed Church elaborated the same theory of a 
literal inspiration, as a bulwark against popery, and gave it even 
symbolical authority in the Helvetic Consensus Formula (1675), 
but only for Switzerland and for a short period. In other re- 
spects, she presents in the seventeenth century more life, prog- 
ress and variety than the Lutheran Church. 

Holland stood first in critical learning, archaeological and 
chronological investigations, and produced, on the one hand, 
the rigid orthodoxy of the Synod of Dort (1620), and on the 
other, the liberal school of Arniinianism, which emancipated 
exegesis from dogmatic domination and reintroduced through 
Hugo Grotius the Erasmian spirit of philological and historical 
interpretation. Arminianisni assumed great practical impor- 
tance in the revival movement of Wesleyan Methodism. 

England was agitated by the conflicts between prelacy or 
semi-popery and puritauism, which stimulated theological activ- 
ity and furnished the most interesting chapter in the contempo- 
raneous history of Protestantism. The Episcopal commentators 
made large use of the Fathers of the undivided Church of an- 
tiquity. The Puritan (Presbyterian and Independent) com- 
mentators followed the principle that the Holy Spirit is the 
proper interpreter of the Scripture, and that the Scripture 
explains itself. The seventeenth century was the palmy period 
of Puritanism and the most fruitful of biblical study. 

I. Lutheran exegetes. 

(1) The Orthodox School. 

Abraham Calov, professor at Wittenberg (d. 1686) : Biblia illustrata, 
1672. 4 vols, fol., a dogmatico-polemical catena of Lutheran Bible learning, 
chiefly against Grotius. * 

W. Geier, professor at Leipzig (d. 1680) : Psalms, Proverbs, Daniel. 

Seb. Schmidt, professor at Strassburg (d. 1696) : several books of the 
Old and Xew Testaments, and Collegium biblicum. 

Sal. Glass, professor at Jena (d. 1656) : Philologia Sacra, 1623, etc. 
Sensus duplex, literalis et mysticus; the former holding the priority of order, 
the latter of dignity. 

Schottgex (d. at Dresden, 1751) : Horce Hebraicw et Talmudicce, Dresden, 
1733 and 1742. 

J. C. Wolf, professor of Oriental languages in Hamburg (d. 1739) : 
Curee philologies et critics in Novum Testa men turn, etc. Basil., 1741, 5 vols. 

Christoph Starke, orthodox but not polemical, aiming at edification, 
like the Pietists (d. 1744) : Synoj)sis bibliothecce exeget., on the Old and Xew 
Testaments (German), Leipzig, 1733 sqq., 9 vols. ; new ed. Berlin, 1865 sqq. 
Replaced by Lange's Bibelwerk. 

(2) The Pietistic School, aiming chiefly at edification. Collegia philo- 



218 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

biblica. Methodism did for the Church of England, on a larger, more 
practical and methodical scale, what Pietism had done for Germany. 
Pietists and Methodists, originally terms of reproach for experimental 
Christians. 

" Was ist ein Pietist? der Gottes Wort studirt 
Und nach demselben audi ein lieilig Leben fuhrt." 

Spener (d. 1705), on several Epistles. Francke (d. 1727) : Manuductio 
ad lectionem S. Script. — Paul Anton (d. 1730), a voluminous writer on the 
New Testament. — J. Heinrich Michaelis (d. 1738) : Notes on the Old Tes- 
tament. — Rambach (d. 1735). 

Joachim Lange (d. 1744) : Liclitund Becht, 1729 sqq., 7 vols. 

The Berleburger Bioel, 1726-42, 8 vols. 

Many works, mostly worthless, on the Apocalypse with a millennarian 
tendency. 

(3) Joh. Albrecht Bengel (d. 1752) : Gnomon Novi Testamenti, Tubing. 
1742 and often (also in English). He occupies a via media between ortho- 
dox Lutheranism and Pietism ; sound in doctrine, reverential in spirit, 
acute in judgment, sparing in words, pregnant in meaning, a sober chiliast, 
upon the whole the best exegete of the eighteenth century. His Gnomon 
is truly a pointer or indicator, like a sun-dial. Farrar (p. 393) calls it a 
"mine of priceless gems." It is one of the very few commentaries which, 
like Chrysostom's and Calvin's, have outlasted their generation, notwith- 
standing his faulty exposition of the Apocalypse, which was exploded June 
18, 1836 (the supposed date of the destruction of the beast). A warning 
of humility and caution to lesser lights. 

II. Reformed exegetes, partly (and mostly) orthodox Calvinists, partly 
Arminians. The former developed the dogmatic and practical, the latter 
the scientific and historical element, in Calvin's exegesis. 

(1) Dutch Beformed. (a) Orthodox. 

J. Coccejus (Koch), professor at Leyden (d. 1669), wrote commenta- 
ries on most of. the biblical books (Opera, Amst. 1675, 10 vols, fol.) and 
founded a biblical rather than scholastic theology and exegesis, on the basis 
of the idea of the Covenant of God with man in a gradual historical evolu- 
tion : (1) the Covenant of nature and works, made with Adam in Paradise 
(imaginary) ; (2) the Covenant of grace and faith, after the fall, under 
three administrations, viz. before the law, under the law, under the gos- 
pel. Immense learning. Excessive typology substituted for the manifold 
mystic sense. The Old Testament theocracy made a picture frame of the 
Christian Church. " Verba S. S. significant id omne quod possunt." Cocce- 
jus found "Christ everywhere in the Old Testament, Grotius nowhere. ; ' 
Grotius, however, recognized messianic prophecies. On Ps. 15 : 10, he 
says: " Latet sensus mysticus . . . ut in plerisque Psalmis." The covenant 
theology maintained itself in Holland till the eighteenth century. 

Campegius Vitrtnga (d. 1722, at Franeker), a pupil of Coccejus, but 
more moderate, very learned and profound. His commentaries on Isaiah, 
Zach., Epp., Apoc, etc., are still valuable. 

Jos. Scaliger, professor at Leyden (d. 1609), the greatest scholar of 
his age, master of thirteen languages, an admirer of Calvin, founder of the 
first system of biblical chronology, Thesaurus Temporum. — J. Drusius (d. 



PROTESTANT EXEGESIS. 219 

1616). — Bochart (d. 1667), on biblical zoology and geography. — Sal. van 
Til (d. 1713). — Reland (d. 1718) made an epoch in Palestine geography 
and biblical antiquities. — J. Marck (d. 1731). — Schuttens (d. 1750) was 
the best Arabic scholar of the eighteenth century. — Venema (d. 1787). 

(&) The Arminian commentators were free from the dogmatic preposses- 
sions and intolerance of orthodoxy, and prepared the way for grammatico- 
historical exegesis, but also for rationalism by their lower view on inspi- 
ration and indifference to doctrine. 

Hugo Grotius (De Groot, d. 1645), a great scholar, jurist, statesman 
and divine : Annotationes on the whole Bible, 1641-44. Himself a layman, 
he wrote for laymen, from the standpoint of a statesman and historian. 
Illustrations of the Bible by parallel passages from the Greek and Latin 
authors and secular historians. Afterwards superseded by Wetstein. 
Grotius was called a papist because he would not denounce the pope as the 
antichrist of prophecy, and the Romish priests as ministers of antichrist. 

J. Clericus (Le Clerc, d. 1736) : Commentaries on most of the Old Tes- 
tament books, and Latin translation of Hammond on the New Testament, 
with many additions. 

Sim. Episcopius (d. 1643). — Phil, von Limborch (d. 1712). 

(2) German and Swiss Reformed. 

David Pareus, at Heidelberg (d. 1622) : Commentaries on Gen., Min. 
Prophets and several books of the New Testament. 

Joh. Piscator (Fischer), at Herborn (d. 1625), on the whole Bible, 
in 24 vols. 8vo, afterwards in 4 vols. 

D. Tossanus (Toussaint), at Hanau (d. 1629), on the New Testament. 

J. H. Heidegger, professor at Zurich (d. 1697) : Exercitia biblica. 

F. A. Lampe (b. at Bremen, 1683, professor at Utrecht, d. at Bremen, 
1729) wrote a most learned commentary on John, 3 vols. 4to. He was a 
rigid Calvinist and yet a sweet hymnist (author of " Mem Leoen ist ein Pil- 
grimstand ; " " O Lieoesglut, die Erd und Hi mm el paaret," etc.). 

John Jacob Wetstein (1693-1754, professor at Basel, deposed and ex- 
iled from his native city for heresy, 1730, then professor at the Arminian 
College in Amsterdam) : Novum Testamentum Grwcum, Amsterdam. 1751- 
52, 2 vols. fol. A herculean work of forty years' labor, a thesaurus of clas- 
sical, patristic and rabbinical learning in illustration of the text, and a 
quarry for commentators. As a textual critic he was inferior in judgment 
to the contemporary Bengel, but much richer in resources and collations. 
He introduced the system of citations of uncial manuscripts by Latin cap- 
itals (A, C, D, etc.) and of cursive manuscripts by Arabic numerals. His 
text (Elzevir) is superseded, but his notes of parallel passages are invalu- 
able. 

(3) French Reformed. 

LrD. de Dieu (d. 1642). — Jaq. Cappelle, at Sedan (d. 1624). — His 
brother, Louis Cappelle, at Saumur (d. 1658). — Is. de Beausobre (d. 
1738, at Berlin). 

(4) English divines, of the Episcopal and of Dissenting Churches, ri- 
valed each other in biblical learning and its application to the practical 
life of the Church, and produced more works of permanent homiletical 
value than those of the continent. The Puritan commentators excel in prac- 
tical application and are rich mines for preachers. Spurgeon prized them 



220 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

above all others, and characterizes them pithily in his Lectures on Com- 
menting and Commentaries (London, 1876). Farrar ignores them. 

Henry Hammond (Canon of Christ Church, Oxford, d. 1660) : Paraphrase 
and Annotations upon the New Testament, London, 1653 (best ed. 1702) ; 
also on the Psalms and Proverbs. Churchly and Arminian. (Spurgeon 
calls him " churchy.") 

Critici Sacri, compiled as an appendix to Walton's Polyglot, under the 
direction of Bishop Pearson, and others, first edition, London, 1660, 
9 torn., followed by two suppl. vols, and four more, called Thesaurus Theo- 
logico-Philologicus ; best ed. Amsterd. 1698-1732, 13 vols. Contains ex- 
tracts from Reformed and Roman Catholic commentators, viz. Erasmus, 
Seb. Munster, Fagius, Vatablus, Castellio, Clarius, Drusius, Grotius, Scaliger, 
Casaubonus, Capellus, and a few others. A huge cyclopedia of the wisdom 
and folly of commentators. (See a full table of contents of the several 
volumes in Darling's Cyclopedia Bibliographica, pp. 815-820.) 

Matthew Poole (Polus, Presbyterian divine, ejected for non-conform- 
ity in 1662, d. 1679) : Synopsis Criticorum aliorumque S. Scripture interpre- 
tum, London, 1669-76, 4 vols, in 5 fol. (which is better than the incor- 
rect Francf. reprints of 1688 and 1712). A useful abridgment from the 
Critici Sacri, and many other commentators (including Lutherans), the 
names being marked on the margin. 

Matthew Poole wrote also Annotations upon the tvhole Bible, 4th ed. 
London, 1700, 2 vols. fol. ; London, 1840, 3 vols. imp. 8vo ; London, 1853. 
This is an English synopsis from Poole's Latin synopsis and intended 
for popular use. The books from Isaiah to the end were done after his 
death by different authors. Spurgeon puts Poole next to Matthew Henry 
in value for practical use. 

Joseph Hall (bishop of Norwich, d. 1656) : Contemplations on the His- 
torical Passages of the Old and New Testaments, in numerous editions, one 
at Edinburgh, 1844. 

John Trapp (vicar of Weston-upon-Avon, 1611-69) : A Commentary 
on the Old and New Testaments, London, 1654, 5 vols. fol. ; new ed. 1867. 
Original with much quaint wit and illustrative anecdotes. Spurgeon says 
(p. 7) : " Trapp is my especial companion and treasure ; I can read him 
when I am too weary for anything else. Trapp is salt, pepper, mustard, 
vinegar, and all the other condiments." 

Patrick, Wm. Lowth, Whitby and Lowman : A Critical Commentary 
and Paraphrase on the Old and New Testaments and the Apocrypha, London, 
1679-94 ; ed. Pitman, London, 1822, 6 vols. ; Philadelphia, 1844, in 4 vols. 
The New Testament with the exception of Revelation, by Whitby. Episco- 
palians and Arminians classed among the " Latitudinarians." * 

* The meaning of the term Latitudinarianism as employed in England 
is well explained by Dr. John Stoughton, in his Ecclesiastical History of 
England. The Church of the Restoration, vol. II. p. 359 (London, 1870) : 
' ' The term Latitudinarian, both as a term of praise and a term of re- 
proach, intended by friends to signify that a man was liberal, intended by 
enemies to denote that he was heterodox, came to be applied to thinkers 
holding very different opinions. Amongst the divines, often placed under 
the generic denomination, very considerable diversities of sentiment ex- 
isted. Indeed, the name is so loosely used as to be given to some persons 



PROTESTANT EXEGESIS. 221 

Matthew Henry (Dissenting minister at Chester, 1662-1714, the son of 
Philip Henry, who was deposed for non-conformity in 1662) : An Exposition 
of the Old and Neiv Testaments^ London, 1705-15, 5 vols, fol., often repub- 
lished in England and America (also condensed in Jenk's Comprehensive 
Commentary). It is fresh, pithy, quaint, suggestive and full of spiritual 
wisdom and experience. It holds its ground to this day as the best prac- 
tical and devotional commentary for English readers. Spurgeon advises 
ministers to read Henry " entirely and carefully through once at least " (p. 
3). But we must not go to him for the solution of any critical difficulty. 

John Gill (Baptist minister, d. 1771) : An Exposition of the Old and 
Xew Testaments, London, 1728-67 ; again London, 1810, in 9 vols. 4to. A 
supralapsarian Calvinist, great rabbinical scholar, but very dry and diffuse. 
"The Corypheus of hyper-Calvinism." (Spurgeon.) 

John Lightfoot (professor in Cambridge, a member of the West- 
minster Assembly, d. 1675) must be mentioned here on account of his 
unsurpassed rabbinical learning made subservient to the illustration of 
the Scriptures : Horce Hebraicae et Talmudicas in quatuor Evangelistas, in 
Acta Apostol., partem aliquam Epistolos ad Rom. et prior em ad Corinthios, 
1684, in 2 vols. ; ed. Lips., by Carpzov, 1675, 1679 ; best ed. London, 1825. 
Lightfoot also largely assisted Walton in his Polyglot, and Poole in his 
Synopsis. 

Joseph Caryl (one of the Westminster Puritans, 1602-73) wrote an 
Exposition of Job, with Practical Observations, in 12 volumes, 4to, which it 
required the patience of a Job to write, and requires as much patience to 
read. It is a Puritan parallel to Pope Gregory's Job. An abridgment ap- 
peared in Edinburgh, 1836. Another colossal Puritan commentary on a 
single book is John Owen's Exposition of the Hebrews, in 4 fol. vols., 
London, 1668-74, also in 7 vols. 8vo., ed. by Goold, abridged by Williams, 
1790. The richest modern commentary, on the Psalms, of the Puritan type 
is Charles Haddon Spurgeon (d. 1892) : The Treasury of David, London 
and New York, 1870 sqq., in 7 vols. It is a storehouse for preachers by 
the greatest of modern preachers. We mention it in this natural con- 
nection by anticipation. 

Philip Doddridge (an eminently pious Independent divine, d. 1751) : 
Family Expositor of the Xew Testament, London 1736, 6 vols., and many 
other editions. Sound judgment and taste, devout spirit, excellent prac- 
tical observations. 

Thomas Scott (Calvinistic Episcopalian, 1747-1821) : The Holy Bible, 

«vhose orthodoxy is above all just suspicion — to others not only verging 
upon, but deeply involved in considerable error. When we examine the 
essence of Latitudinarianism, and find that it consisted in the elevation 
of morals above dogmas, in the assertion of charity against bigotry, in ab- 
stinence from a curious prying into mysteries, yet in the culture of a 
spirit of free investigation, we see that there might be lying concealed 
under much which is truly excellent elements of a different description. 
Scepticism might nestle under all this virtue, and all this tolerance — under 
this love of what is reasonable, and this habit of liberal inquiry. Faith 
in that which is most precious might live in amicable alliance with the 
distinctive Latitudinarian temper, or scepticism might secretly nestle be- 
neath its wings." 



222 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

ivith Explanatory Notes, Practical Observations, and Copious Marginal Refer- 
ences, London, 1792, and often since ; best ed. London, 1841, in 6 vols. The 
favorite commentary of low-church Episcopalians of a former generation. 
Much esteemed and used chiefly for its practical value. 

Adam Clarke (a Wesleyan minister and scholar, 1760-1832) : The Holy 
Bible, with a Commentary and Critical Notes, London, 1810-23, 8 vols. ; best 
ed. London, 1844, 6 vols. imp. 8vo. Replete with antiquarian but not al- 
ways accurate and apposite learning, practical piety, defective in taste 
and judgment. A curiosity shop. The model commentary of the Metho- 
dists, and more used by preachers than any English commentary, except, 
perhaps, Matthew Henry. 

Bishop Lowth, of Oxford (d. 1787), opened the understanding for 
Hebrew poetry and may be called in this respect the English forerunner 
of Herder : Be Sacra Poesi Hebrworum (1753) ; Commentary on Isaiah 
(1779). 

CHAPTER CXXXVII. 

THE COMMENTATORS OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH IN THE 
SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES. 

The Roman Church cares more for the teaching priesthood 
and the sacraments than for the Bible ; while Protestantism 
makes the Bible the chief means of grace and nourishment of 
piety. 

The Council of Trent laid chains on progress in Biblical 
learning by raising the Latin Vulgate (even without a critical 
text) to equal dignity with the Greek and Hebrew Bible, and 
forbidding all departure from an imaginary unanimus consensus 
patrum, as the ne plus ultra of exegetical wisdom. 

Nevertheless there were several learned commentators, es- 
pecially among the Jesuits, who were ambitious to defeat the 
Protestants with their own weapons of learning and energy. 

Francois Vatable (Vatablus, professor of Hebrew in Paris, d. 1547), 
the author of learned annotations to the Old Testament, the first edition 
of which was condemned by the doctors of the Sorbonne. (Paris, 1545, 
2d ed. 1584; also in the Critici Sacri). 

J. Maldonado (or Maldonatus, a learned Spanish Jesuit, professor 
at Paris, d. 1583), on the Gospels, Psalms, larger prophets. His commen- 
tary in quatuor evangelistas was reprinted, Mogunt., 1841-45, in 5 vols. 8vo. 

Em. de Sa (a Portuguese Jesuit, 1530-96) : Notationes in totam S. 
Scripturam, Antw. 1598. 

Cardinal Robert Bellarmin (1542-1621), the greatest champion of 
Romanism versus Protestantism, wrote a Latin Commentary on the Psalms, 
which was translated by the Ven. John O'Sullivan into English, London, 
1866. Spurgeon (p. 81) characterizes it as " popish, but marvelously 



RATIONALISTIC EXEGESIS. 223 

good for a Cardinal. He is frequently as evangelical as a Reformer. He 
follows the Vulgate text in his comment." 

William Estius (b. in Holland 1542, studied at Utrecht and Louvain, 
professor in Douay, d. 1613) : Commentarius in Epistolas Apostolicas, 3 
vols., 1631. One of the best works of the kind, endeavoring to find out the 
literal meaning ; Augustinian in spirit. 

Cornelius a Lapide (von Stein, a learned Jesuit, professor of Hebrew 
at Louvain, d. 1637) : Commentaria in Vetus et Novum Testamentum (exclu- 
sive of Job and Psalms), Antw. 1616-27, 12 vols, fol., and in many other 
editions. Gives the literal, allegorical, moral, and anagogical sense ; full 
of patristic quotations, allegories and legends. 

Richard Simon (1638-1712), is the founder of biblical Isagogic by his 
critical histories of the text and versions of the Bible. 

Augustin Calmet (a pious and learned Benedictine, abbot of 
Senones in the Vosges, 1672-1757) : Commentaire lateral sur tons les livres 
cle VAncien et du Nouveau Testaments, Paris 1724, 8 vols, in 9 ; several 
editions. A work of great learning and value. Translated into Latin by 
Mansi, Lucca, 1730-38, 9 vols. The same author wrote a Dictionary of 
the Bible (English ed. by Charles Taylor and Dr. Robinson), and Biblical 
Antiquities. 

Minor commentators : J. Mariana (d. 1624) ; Escobar Mendoza (d. 
1609) ; Jac. Tarinus (d. 1636) ; Menochius (d. 1655) ; J. Hardouin (d. 
1729). 

To these orthodox writings must be added two exegetical works which 
were condemned by the Roman Church as Jansenistic or Quietistic. 

Pasquier Quesnell (a half-evangelical Jansenist, b. at Paris, 1634, ex- 
iled 1681, d. 1719) : Le Nouveau Testament avec reflexions morales sur chaque 
verse, etc., 1687; Amst. 1736, 8 vols. 12mo; English translation, London, 
1719-25, 4 vols. The Gospels also separately edited by Bishop Wilson. 
Much admired for spiritual unction and rich piety. 

Mme. Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la Mothe-Guyon (1648-1717) : La 
Ste. Bible avec des explications et reflexions qui regardent la vie interieure, Col. 
1713, 20 vols. The work represents her fervid, but eccentric, mystic piety 
of disinterested love. Quietism was condemned. She recanted thirty arti- 
cles which were drawn from her writings. She led an exemplary Chris- 
tian life, like Bishop Fenelon, her friend. 



CHAPTER CXXXVIII. 

RATIONALISTIC EXEGESIS, FROM THE MIDDLE OF THE EIGHT- 
EENTH CENTURY TO THE PRESENT TIME. 

A radical revolution in theology, similar to the political and 
social revolution in France, threatened to undermine the very 
foundations of Christianity since the middle of the eighteenth 
century. Its phases are Deism in England ; Deism and Athe- 
ism in France ; Rationalism and Pantheism in Germany. 



224 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Reason was raised above faith and made the judge of revela- 
tion ; the Bible treated as a merely human production ; its 
inspiration denied; its genuineness questioned; its doctrines 
assailed ; its merits reduced and measured by the standard of a 
utilitarian morality. The supernatural and miraculous is the 
chief obstacle. The older, deistic Rationalism of Paulus (called 
rationalismus vulgaris) explains the miracles of the gospel 
history away as natural events, which the disciples misunder- 
stood; the modern, pantheistic Rationalism of Strauss and 
Renan resolves them into myths and legends which arose in the 
religious imagination of a later generation. 

Rationalistic exegesis, like Pharisaism of old, but from an 
opposite point of view, diligently searches the letter of the Bible, 
but has no sympathy with its life-giving spirit. It investigates 
the historical and human aspects of Christianity and ignores or 
denies its divine character. 

The mission of Rationalism is chiefly negative and destruct- 
ive. It was justifiable and necessary just as far as the human 
authorship and literary form of the Bible were neglected by 
the orthodox exegesis in its zeal for the eternal truths. It 
was a reaction against bibliolatry and symbololatry. It eman- 
cipated the mind from the tyranny of dogmatic systems. It 
aimed at a true historical understanding of the literature of 
the Bible in its origin and gradual growth. It achieved great 
and lasting merits in grammatical, critical, historical and anti- 
quarian research. It forms a transition to a new age of faith 
in harmony with enlightened reason and fortified by critical 
learning. 

1. The latest form of the supernaturalistic school of Germany, in its 
attempt to defend the faith against rising opposition, made concessions to 
the enemy and gradually approached Rationalism. J. David Michaelis 
(Prof, in Gottingen, d. 1791) : Introduction to the Bible, and Translation with 
Com. on the Old and Neiv Testaments, etc. — J. A. Ernesti (Prof, in Leipzig, 
d. 1781) : Institutio interpretis 1ST. T (5th ed. 1809).— Morus (d. 1792).— J. 
G. Rosenmuller (d. 1815) : Scholia in N. T. (1777, 6th ed. 1831).— E. F. 
C. Rosenmuller (son of the former, d. 1835) : Scholia in V. T., 1788-1835, 
24 torn. — Also Kuhnol, see below. 

2. Johann Salomo Semler (Prof, in Halle, d. 1791), the father of Ger- 
man neology, educated in the school of Pietism, to which he adhered in 
what he called his "private piety," "but, carried away "by the revolutionary 
spirit of the age, yet at ]ast afraid of its consequences, unsettled the tra- 
ditionary notions of the canon, distinguished the Bible from the word of 
God contained in it, and introduced the accommodation theory, which tries 



RATIONALISTIC EXEGESIS. 225 

to explain the Bible from the notions and prejudices of the times and 
peoples in which it originated. He left no school or permanent work, "but 
scattered the seeds of doubt in every direction. And yet he opposed Less- 
ing and the Wolfenbiittel Fragmentist. His style is prosy, inelegant and 
intolerably prolix. 

3. The most distinguished Eationalists in the field of biblical learning. 
J. G. Eichhorn (in Gottingen, d. 1827) : Hist. Critical Introduction to the 

Old and New Testaments (4th ed. 1823, 5 vols.) ; Com. on Revelation. He is 
sometimes called the founder of higher criticism, but was preceded by 
Semler, as Semler was preceded by Richard Simon. 

H. E. G. Paulus (Heidelberg, d. 1851) : Com. on the Gospels, and Life 
of Jesus. The natural explanation of the Gospel miracles, ably refuted by 
Strauss. 

F. H. W. Gesenius (Prof, in Halle, d. 1842) : Hebrew Grammar (25th 
ed. by Kautzsch, 1889) ; Dictionary (11th ed. 1890) ; Thesaurus (completed 
by Rodiger, 1829-58, 3 vols.); Com. on Isaiah (1829), etc. 

C. F. A. Fritzsche (Prof, in Rostock and Giessen, d. 1846, a thorough 
classical philologist and investigator) : Latin Com. on Matthew and Marie 
(1826-30), and Romans (3 torn. 1836-43). 

Chris. Kuhnol (or in Latin Kuinoel, Prof, in Giessen, d. 1841) : Latin 
Com. on the New Testament (Lips. 1825-43). A rational supernaturalist. 

Aug. Knobel (Prof, in Giessen) : Com. on Pentateuch, Isaiah, etc. 

Hitzig (Prof, in Zurich and Heidelberg, a most learned and acute critic), 
and nearly all the other contributors to the Exeg. Handbook on the Old Tes- 
tament (later edd. by Dillmann and others). 

De Wette (Prof, in Basel, d. 1849, whose religious heart and fine taste 
were in advance of his skeptical understanding) * : Introduction to the Old 
and New Testaments (1817 ; 8th ed. by Schrader, 1869) ; Com. on the Psalms 
(5 edd.); Exeg. Handbook on the New Testament (1835 sqq. and posthu- 
mous edd. by various writers, a model of comprehensive brevity and sound 
judgment) ; Biblical Dogmatics (3d ed. 1831) ; German Translation of the 
Scriptures (3d ed. 1839). He belongs to the school of Schleiermacher in a 
wider sense. 

4. The older Tubingen school, represented by Storr (d. 1805), Flatt 
(d. 1821), the younger Bengel (d. 1826), and Steudel (d. 1837), as also 
the isolated Knapp in Halle (d. 1825), Hess in Zurich (d. 1828), manfully 
and faithfully defended the sinking ship of biblical (not churchly) super- 
naturalism in the midst of the raging storms of Rationalism. (Not to be 
confounded with the modern Tubingen school headed by Baur. ) 

5. J. G. Herder (d. 1803 at Weimar), one of the German classics, a 
man of almost universal genius and taste, more poet than divine, neither 
orthodox nor scriptural, yet deeply religious, a harbinger of a brighter era 
in theology, kindled enthusiasm for the sublime beauties of the Bible (es- 

* He gave expression to his honest and sad skepticism shortly before his 
death in these touching lines : 

u Ich fiel in eine wirre Zeit : 
Des Glaubens Einfalt war vernichtet. 
Ich mischte mich mit in den Streit, 
JDoch, ach ! ich hab 1 ihn nicht gcsclrfichtet." 



226 - THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

peeially by his Geist der Hebraisclien Poesie, 1782), and led a rising genera- 
tion to the portal of the temple of inspiration. His influence is felt on 
many Kationalists, as Eichhorn, De Wette. In Ewald has arisen a new 
Herder with less poetry but more learning. 



CHAPTER CXXXIX. 

THE SWEDENBORGIAN EXEGESIS. 

. Emanuel Swedenborg, the Swedish seer or visionary (1688- 
1772), in extreme contrast with the skepticism and infidelity of 
his age, came out with a new revelation and theory of Scripture 
interpretation, but exerted no influence on the regular course 
of historical development. He stood outside of the main cur- 
rent of history. 

He distinguishes between the literal or natural, and the 
spiritual or celestial sense. "All and every part of the Script- 
ure, even to the most minute, not excepting the smallest jot 
and tittle, signify and involve spiritual and celestial things." 
(Arcana Ccelestia, I. No. 2.) This deeper sense is in the literal 
as the thought is in the eye, or the soul in the body, but was 
lost until it was revealed to Swedenborg. His allegorizing is 
arbitrary and fanciful, often ingenious, often absurd. Examples : 
The first chapter of G-enesis, in its spiritual sense, represents 
the regeneration of man ; the six days, the successive stages of 
regeneration ; Adam in paradise, the oldest church ; the four 
rivers in Eden, goodness, knowledge, reason and science. All 
the geographical and personal names of the Old Testament are 
filled with mysteries. In this respect he goes further than 
Philo and Origen in their allegorical method, but differs en- 
tirely in the application, and especially also in his views of the 
canon. 

With an ultra-supernaturalistic inspiration theory Sweden- 
borg unites a rationalistic view on the extent of the canon. He 
rejects from the Old Testament the Solomonic writings and 
Job ; from the New Testament he excludes the Acts and Epis- 
tles, especially those of St. Paul, from whose doctrine of the 
atonement and justification he entirely dissents. Even in the 
remaining books, the Gospels and the Apocalypse, he admits 
only the words of the Lord or of an angel, as strictly divine, 
while the words of an apostle or evangelist reflect the limited 



MODERN EVANGELICAL EXEGESIS. 227 

knowledge of enlightened men and have only one sense, the 
literal. 

The exegesis of Swedenborg is original, but critically and theologically 
worthless, and hence ignored in commentaries. Arcana Cwlestia (Com. on 
Genesis and Exodus), London, 1749 sqq. (ed. Tafel, Tub. 1833-42. Eng- 
lish translation in 10 vols., New York, 1870). Apocalypsis explicata secun- 
dum sensum spiritualem, 3 vols. (English translation in 6 vols., published in 
London and New York by the Swedenborg Publication Society). 



CHAPTER CXL. 

MODERN EVANGELICAL EXEGESIS. 

In conflict with the rationalistic movement, there arose in 
Germany a new evangelical theology, based upon a revival of 
faith in the Bible and in the principles of the Reformation, the 
tercentennial of which was celebrated in 1817. The leaders of 
this new theology were Schleiermacher, Neander, Tholuck, 
Nitzsch, Twesten, Julius Muller, Bleek, Liicke, Rothe, Dorner, 
Lange and others, who form a generation of thinkers and 
scholars such as had not been seen in the Church since the 
sixteenth century. England, Scotland and North America were 
much less affected by Rationalism than the Continent of Europe, 
but are passing now through a similar crisis, aided by the ex- 
perience of the past. 

The modern exegesis is not a simple restoration of the old 
Protestant exegesis, but a reconstruction and adaptation of it 
to the present state, and with a full appreciation of the gram- 
matico-historical exegesis, as cultivated by the better class of 
Rationalists. Winer's Grammar of the New Testament marks 
an epoch in the strict grammatical exegesis of the New Testa- 
ment, Gesenius' and Ewald's Hebrew Grammars in that of the 
Old Testament. 

The exegetical apparatus and facilities have accumulated be- 
yond all previous experience. The Bible languages and Bible 
lands are better known than ever before. Egypt, the Sinaitic 
Peninsula, Palestine, Syria, ancient Babylonia and Assyria, are 
made as familiar by recent discovery and research as our na- 
tive lands. New branches of exegetical theology have been 
developed. There is an international co-operation and rivalry 
in biblical studies. Germany is the chief workshop, but Prot* 



228 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

estant Switzerland, Holland, France, Great Britain, and North 
America are taking an active part in every movement, and even 
the Roman Chnrch keeps np with the progress. By the inde- 
fatigable labors of Lachmann, Teschendorf, Tregelles, Westcott 
and Hort we have now a pure and trustworthy text of the Greek 
Testament. The emendation of the Hebrew text has begun. 
The revision of the German, English and other Protestant 
versions is the practical result of critical study, and stimulates 
it in turn to new achievements. Altogether, the Bible is now 
more extensively circulated and studied than in any previous 
age. 

The learned commentaries on single books and on the whole 
Bible which the nineteenth century has produced are so nu- 
merous and so varied that it is difficult to classify them. They 
represent all shades of theological opinions between the right 
wing of conservatism and the left wing of progressivism. Some 
German commentaries are like a symposium in which all par- 
ties are heard and criticised by the author as the presiding 
judge. 

1. The conservative orthodoxy of modern times (mostly of the new Lu- 
theran type) is represented in exegesis and biblical criticism by Hengsten- 
berg, Havernick, Caspari, Stier, Keil, Delitzsch, Von Hofmann, Philippi, 
Luthardt, Zahn, Zockler, Strack. The last four lean toward the next class. 
None of them holds the mechanical inspiration theory of the seventeenth 
century, not even Hengstenberg. 

2. The liberal and progressive evangelical orthodoxy : Neander (Life of 
Christ, Apostolic Age, popular commentaries), Tholuck (Eomans, Sermon 
on the Mount, Hebrews), Olshausen, Bleek (Biblical Introduction, He- 
brews, etc.), Liicke (the Johannean writings), Meyer, Lange, Ebrard, 
Hupfeld, Schlottmann, Eiehm, Eeuss, Lechler, Heinrici, B. Weiss, etc. 
"With these Germans may also be numbered Van Oosterzee of Utrecht, and 
Godet of Neuchatel (the best French commentator of recent times). 

Among English commentators, Alford, Ellicott, Lightfoot, Westcott and 
Farrar represent the evangelical broad-church tendency, which comes very 
near the liberal evangelical school of Germany. Most of the Americans 
of the younger generation sympathize with it. 

3. Ewald (d. 1875) founded a school of his own in the Old Testament 
by his epoch-making commentaries on the poetical and prophetical books 
and his history of Israel. In his wake followed, with more or less inde- 
pendence, Hitzig, Lagarde, Dillmann, Diestel, Wellhausen, Merx, Stade, 
Siegfried, Cornill, Kautzsch. In England, W. Eobertson Smith, Cheyne, 
Driver. 

4. Baur (d. 1860) and the new Tubingen school (Zeller, Schwegler, 
Hilgenf eld, Volkmar, etc. ) have done little for exegesis proper, but a great 
deal for a critical reconstruction of the origin and growth of the literature 



MODERN EVANGELICAL EXEGESIS. 229 

of the New Testament. In this department Banr has exerted more influ- 
ence than any exegete. Strauss, his pupil, revolutionized the gospel his- 
tory and stimulated the rich modern literature on the life of Christ, to be 
refuted as he has refuted Paulus. Ritschl (d. 1889) has created a fatal 
split in the Tubingen school (on the question of Paulinism and Petrinism), 
and has given rise to a new school in early Church history, of which Har- 
nack is the leader, and Schiirer's " Theologische Literatur Zeitung" the 
chief organ. 

5. A liberal, but less radical school than that of Tubingen is represented 
by the school of Ritschl, and by Holtzmann, Lipsius, and other contribu- 
tors to the Handcommentar on the New Testament. 

6. Biblical scholars and commentators in England and Scotland : Pusey 
(Minor Prophets), Wordsworth (on the whole Bible), Stanley (Corinthians), 
Jowett (Pauline Epistles), Tregelles (textual criticism of the New Testa- 
ment), Alford (New Testament), Ellicott (Pauline Epistles), Lightfoot 
(Galatians, Philippians, Colossians, etc.), Westcott (on John's Gospel and 
Epistle to the Hebrews, Introduction to the Gospels, Canon of the New 
Testament), Hort (textual criticism of the New Testament), Perowne 
(Psalms, etc.), Plummer (several Epistles), Farrar (Luke, Hebrews, Life 
of Christ, and St. Paul, etc.), A. B. Davidson (Job), W. Robertson Smith 
(Old Testament Criticism), Cheyne (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Psalms), Driver (Old 
Testament Introduction), Gloag (Acts, Johannean writings, Cath. and 
Pauline Epp., etc.), Kirkpatrick, Wright, Dods, and others. 

7. American biblical scholars : Moses Stuart (Commentaries on several 
books of the Old and New Testaments), E. Robinson (Biblical Researches, 
Hebrew and Greek lexicography, Harmony of the Gospels), Barnes (the 
pioneer of popular commentators for Sunday-school teachers), Jos. A. Alex- 
ander (on Isaiah, the Psalms, Mark and Acts), Charles Hodge (Romans, 
Ephesians, Corinthians), Shedd (Romans), Tayler Lewis (additions to 
Lange on Genesis, Job, Ecclesiastes, etc.), Cowles (Commentaries on the 
whole Bible), Conant (Hebrew grammar, Proverbs, Matthew), Broadus 
(on Matthew, etc.), Hackett (on Acts), Hovey (the Gospel of John), 
Lyman Abbott (popular commentaries on the Gospels, Acts, Romans), Ezra 
Abbot (on textual criticism of the Greek Testament, on the authorship 
of the fourth Gospel, etc.), Thayer (Lexicon of the Greek Testament), 
Dwight, Briggs, Brown, Harper (in Hebrew learning), Marvin R. Vincent 
(Word Studies on the New Testament). As to the higher criticism of the 
Old Testament, Dr. Green of Princeton (like Hengstenberg in Berlin and 
Pusey in Oxford) represents the conservative orthodox, Dr. Briggs of New 
York (like Dillmann in Berlin and Driver in Oxford), the progressive and 
liberal school ; but both stand on evangelical ground against Rationalism. 

8. Commentaries on the Whole Bible. England is most productive 
in general commentaries for the lay-reader. America comes next. But 
the German works are the most scholarly and critical. 

J. Peter Lange (ed., d. 1884) : Bibelwerk, Bielefeld, 1857 sqq. ; 4th ed. 
1878 sqq., 16 vols. ; Anglo-American ed. (enlarged and adapted) under the 
title Lange's Commentary, by Philip Schaff, New York and Edinb., 1864 
sqq., 25 vols., several editions. Textual, exegetical, theological, and prac- 
tical (homiletical). A composite work of twenty German and over forty 
American writers, differing in merit. Professor Terry (Hermeneutics, p. 



230 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

727) : "Lange is by far the most learned and comprehensive commentary 
on the whole Bible which has appeared in modern times." Spurgeon: 
" The American translators have added considerably to the German stock, 
and in some cases these additions are more valuable than the original 
matter. For homiletical purposes these volumes are so many hills of gold." 

Ch. K. Josias Bunsen (projector and general ed., d. 1860) : Vollstdn- 
diges Bibelwerh fur die Gemeinde, Leipzig, 1858-70, 9 vols. Aided by Ad. 
Kamphausen, Joh. Bleek, and others, completed by H. Holtzmann. 

E. Eeuss (Professor in Strassburg, d. 1891) : La Bible. New French 
translation with introductions and commentaries, Paris, 1874-79, 13 vols. 
The work of one scholar ! 

Strack and Zockler : Kurzgefasster Commentar zu den Schriften des 
A. u. N. T., sowie zu den Apokryphen, Nordlingen, 1887 sqq., 10 vols. By 
moderately orthodox Lutherans and two Eeformed Swiss divines (C. v. 
Orelli and Oettli). 

Bible Annotee par une Societe de theologiens et de pasteurs. Ed. by F. 
Godet, and others. Neuchatel et Geneve, 1878 sqq. Popular. 

French Bible works by Roman Catholics : Bacuez et Vigouroux : Manuel 
Biblique, etc., 1881 sqq. ; Paris, 1880 sqq. — Abbe Arnaud, Paris, 1881 sqq. — 
Trochon, Lesetre, and others, the Vulgate, with French translation and 
commentaries. 

Bishop Chr. Wordsworth (d. 1885) : The Holy Bible, etc., London, 
1864 sqq., several editions, 6 vols, (the New Testament with the Greek 
text). Scholarly, reverential, patristic, high Anglican, uncritical, full of 
"apostolic succession" and "sacramental grace." 

Canon F. C. Cook (editor, d. 1889) : The Holy Bible, etc., usually called 
"The Speaker's Commentary" (because suggested by the Speaker of the 
House of Commons in 1863 for apologetic purposes), London and New 
York, 1871-81, 10 vols. By a number of Episcopal divines. Represents 
the average conservative scholarship of the Church of England prior to 
the Revised Version. 

Canon Spence and" Rev. Jos. S. Exell (editors) : The Pulpit Commen- 
tary, London, 1880 sqq. (40 vols, so far). By about one hundred con- 
tributors, mostly from the Church of England. On the plan of Lange, but 
more extended ; a rich mine for preachers. 

Jameson, Fausset and Brown : The Library Commentary, Edinb. 1871 
sqq., 6 vols. Popular. 

Bishop Ellicott : Com. for English Readers by Various Writers, London, 
1877 sqq., the New Testament in 3, the Old Testament in 5 vols. Popular 
and useful. The Old Testament behind the latest scholarship. The New 
Testament is better. 

J. C. Gray (ed.) : Biblical Museum. Old Testament 10 vols., New Tes- 
tament 5 vols. London and New York, 1871 sqq., several edd. Popular 
and devotional. 

Bishop Perowne (ed.) : Cambridge Bible for Schools, by various scholars 
of the Church of England, Cambridge, 1877 sqq. Scholarly and popular. 

Dan. D. Whedon (ed., Methodist, d. 1885) : Commentary on the Old and 
New Testament, New York, 1880 sqq., 12 vols. 

James Glentworth Butler ; Biblework, New York, 1883 sqq. Com- 
pilation from other commentaries. 



MODERN EVANGELICAL EXEGESIS. 231 

W. Robertson Nicoll (ed. of ''The London Expositor," Presbyt.): 
Expositor's Bible, London and New York, 1888 sqq., to be completed in 
about 40 vols. Explanatory lectures, by writers of different denominations, 
English, Scotch and American. 

9. Commentaries on the Old Testament. 

Keil und Delitzsch : Biblischer Commentar zum A. T., Leipzig, 3d ed. 
1878 sqq. Conservative. The parts by Franz Delitzsch are the best. 
English translation published by Clark, Edinb. In 27 volumes, 1864-78. 

Eurzgefasstes exeg. Handbuch zum A. T, Leipzig, 1841 sqq., 5th ed. 
1886 sqq., by Dillmann, Diestel, Thenius, Bertheau, and others. Crit- 
ical and somewhat rationalistic. See § 138. 

M. S. Terry and F. H. Newhall (Methodists) : Commentary on the 
Old Testament, New York, 1889 sqq. Evangelical. 

10. Commentaries on the New Testament. 
Calvin and Bengel are still invaluable. 

Hermann Olshausen (1796-1839) : Biblischer Commentar, etc., con- 
tinued by Ebrard and Wiesinger, Konigsberg, 1830 sqq., 7 vols., several 
editions (transl. Edinb. 1847 sqq., and. New York, 1856, in 6 vols.). 

De Wette (d. 1849), in several posthumous editions already mentioned 
in § 138. 

H. A. W. Meyer (d. 1874) : Kritisch exegetischer Kommentar iiber das 
Xeue Testament. Aided by a number of scholars. Gottingen, 1832 sqq., 
16 vols. ; 8th ed. by B. Weiss, and others, 1890 sqq. ; in English (from older 
editions), published in Edinburgh, 1873-82, in 20 vols., and with sundry 
additions in New York. The best students' book for strict philological 
exegesis. Olshausen was superseded by De Wette, De Wette by Meyer, 
Meyer by Weiss. Every new edition of Meyer keeps up with the progress 
of science and makes the older editions useless for critical purposes. 
Meyer was one of the most honest and conscientious exegetes, and it is a 
pity that his work should almost disappear in the latest editions. 

Holtzmann, Lipsius, Schmiedel, von Soden : Handkommentar zum 
Neuen Testament, Freiburg, 1889 sqq., 4 vols. Popular, yet critical and. 
somewhat rationalistic. 

Dean H. Alford (d. 1871) : Tlie Greek Testament, London, 6th ed., 1868 
sqq., 4 vols. The Greek text, critical and exegetical commentary for the 
use of students and ministers. Makes use of Olshausen, De Wette and 
Meyer, but is better adapted for English students. 

Philip Schaff (ed.): The International Illustrated Commentary, New 
York and Edinburgh, 1879-82. Contributors : Drs. Riddle, Howson, Mil- 
ligan, Moulton, Plumptre, Dykes, Dods, Gloag, Lumby, Salmond, Spence, 
Brown. Maps by A. Guyot, illustrations by Drs. W. M. and W. H. Thomson. 
The editor wrote the general introduction and the Commentary on Gala- 
tians. 

J. J. G. Perowne (ed.) : Cambridge Greek Testament for Schools. Text, 
notes and maps. Cambridge, 1881 sqq. Contributors : Carr, Maclear, 
Farrar, Plummer, Lumby, Lias. Excellent for its purpose. 

The commentaries on the several books, especially Genesis, Psalms, 
Gospels, Romans, are so numerous that we have no room for them here. 
See the Bibliographical Appendix. 



232 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

CHAPTER CXLI. 

BIBLICAL HISTORY AND BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 

The results of exegesis are summed up in Biblical History 
and Biblical Theology. 

Biblical History exhibits the origin and growth of the king- 
dom of God from the creation to the close of the apostolic age, 
and properly belongs to Historical Theology. Biblical Theol- 
ogy presents a systematic account of the teaching of the Bible 
on faith and duty, and is the basis of Systematic Theology. 
History and theology are organically united in the Bible. 
History is teaching by example, and teaching is itself part of 
history. 

These two branches of biblical learning lie on the border line 
of Exegesis, Church History and Systematic Theology. They 
are the end of the first, and the beginning of the second and 
third. Exegetical Theology is not complete without them, and 
Historical and Systematic Theology can still less omit them. A 
Church History without the life of Christ and the apostolic age 
would be like a river without a fountain, or like a building 
without foundation. And so also Systematic Theology, both 
dogmatic and moral, strikes its roots in the teaching of the 
Bible and must be guided by it throughout. 

For these reasons as well as for considerations of just pro- 
portion, I prefer to treat Biblical History under Historical Di- 
vinity, and Biblical Theology under Systematic Divinity. 

The History of Biblical Times likewise belongs to Historical 
Theology rather than to Exegesis. 

CHAPTER CXLII. 

HINTS FOR EXEGETICAL STUDY. 

1. Read first the Scripture in the original text, with nothing 
but grammar, dictionary and concordance, and a good version 
(the Anglo-American revision). 

2. Ascertain the meaning for yourself as nearly as you can. 

3. Then, use the best grammatico-historical commentary 
within reach, to aid you in the solution of difficulties. Too 



HINTS FOR EXEGETICAL STUDY. 233 

many commentaries are embarrassing and misleading to the 
beginner. 

4. Consnlt other commentaries, doctrinal and homiletical, as 
you have need, but do not make yourself the slave of any. 

5. Apply your whole self to the text, and the whole text to 
yourself. ("Te totum applied ad textum : rem totam applica ad te. p 
Bengel.) 

6. Never lose sight of the practical and spiritual aim of the 
Bible. 

7. "He rightly reads Scripture who turns words into deeds." 
(St. Bernard.) 



BOOK III. 

HISTOEICAL THEOLOGY. 
CHAPTER CXLIII. 

GENERAL CONCEPTION OF HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

For a fuller introduction to Church History see Schaff : History of the 
Apostolic Church (1853), pp. 1-134, and Church History (1889), 3d revision, 
vol. I. pp. 1-55. C. de Smedt (Eom. Cath.) : Introductio generalis ad histo- 
riam ecclesiasticam critice tractandam. Gandavi (Ghent), 1876 (pp. 533). 
Jos. Nirschl (Rom. Cath. ) : Propadeutik der Kirchengeschichte, Mainz, 1888 
(pp. 352). For a list of works on introduction to history and church his- 
tory see Ed. Bratke : Wegweiser zur Quellen — undLitteraturlcunde der Kirch- 
engeschichte, Gotha, 1890, pp. 86-89. 

Historical Theology, or Church History, in the widest 
sense of the term, exhibits the rise and progress of the king- 
dom of G-od from the beginning to the present time* 

We must distinguish between objective and subjective history. 
They differ as a man differs, from his portrait. Objective 
history is history itself as it occurs. Subjective history is the 
representation or reproduction of it by the historian. The value 
of subjective history depends on the degree of its faithfulness 
to objective history. Subjective history is not the light itself, 
but a witness to the light. " Historia est testis veritatisP 

Church History is the connecting link between Exegetical 

* History from laropla (laropeu, to inquire into, to examine, to know by 
inquiry, to narrate), means research, knowledge (tfnepi (piiaecoghr.,^/ nepl ra &a 
lor.), also account, narrative', ioTopindg, historical; ioTopwypacpeo, to write his- 
tory ; LGTopioypa<pia, historiography ; laroptoypd^og, historian, writer of history. 
The Greek terms convey the subjective idea of history. The German word 
Geschichte, from geschehen, to happen, to occur, suggests the objective idea, 
the sum of what has happened. The writing of history is essential to the 
preservation of history itself in the memory of man. Mere oral tradition 
could not secure its integrity and identity. I prefer the term church his- 
tory {Kirchengeschichte) to the longer and Latinized term ecclesiastical 
history. 



BIBLICAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 235 

and Systematic theology. It embraces all that is of permanent 
interest in the past fortunes of Christendom. But in a wider 
sense it covers also the whole extent of exegesis and runs par- 
allel with it. The revelation of God in the Bible, which is the 
subject of exegesis, has its own history, and admits of a histor- 
ical as well as an exegetical treatment. The exegete is the 
miner who brings to light the Scripture facts and Scripture 
truths ; the historian is the manufacturer or artist who works 
the gold and gives it shape and form for actual use. Moreover, 
exegesis itself and all other departments of theology have their 
history and are constantly furnishing contributions to its 
material. 

Historical Theology is by far the most extensive and copious 
part of sacred learning, and supplies material to all other de- 
partments. If exegesis is the root, church history is the main 
trunk. We are connected with the Bible through the interven- 
ing links of the past and all its educational influences, and can- 
not safely disregard the wisdom and experience of ages. Christ 
has ne v er forsaken his Church, nor left himself without wit- 
nesses. If our fathers and forefathers have labored in vain, we 
who are of the same flesh and blood, have a poor prospect of 
better success. 

Church history is a running commentary on Christ's twin 
parables of the mustard seed and the leaven (Matt. 13 : 31-33), 
and of his parting promise to his disciples, " Behold, I am with 
you all the days even unto the end of the world " (Matt. 28 : 20). 

CHAPTER CXLIY. 

BIBLICAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

Church History in the widest sense embraces both biblical 
and ecclesiastical history : it begins with the creation and will 
end with the final judgment. 

Biblical History runs parallel with the Bible. It follows the 
divine revelation and the growth of the kingdom of God in 
the Jewish dispensation, the life of Christ and the founding of 
the Christian Church by the Apostles to the close of the first 
century. 

Ecclesiastical History or Church History in the narrower 
sense is a history of Christianity from the advent of Christ to 



236 THEOLOGICAL PROPAEDEUTIC. 

the present time. Some date it from the day of Pentecost, 
when the Christian Church first appeared as a distinct and 
separate organization. But the miracle of Pentecost has no 
meaning without the preceding miracle of the resurrection and 
ascension, which is the consummation of the life of the Founder 
of Christianity. 

The relative goal of history is the time of the historian, the 
absolute goal is the end of time and the beginning of eternity. 
The historian is a retrospective prophet, but the future is only 
known to God. 

CHAPTER CXLV. 

AGENTS OF HISTORY. 

History in general is the product of divine, human, and Sa- 
tanic agencies. 

1. On the part of God, history is his revelation in time, as 
nature is his revelation in space. It is his epos. It gradually 
unfolds an eternal plan of wisdom and goodness for the re- 
demption of the human race and the triumph of his kingdom. 
Man ought to do all for the glory of God ; God does all for the 
good of man. As nature reveals God's power and wisdom, so 
history reveals his justice and mercy. 

The recognition of God in history is the first principle of all 
sound philosophy of history. God is no God unless he is 
almighty, omniscient and omnipresent. " In him we live, and 
move, and have our being" (Acts 17 : 28). He is immanent as 
well as transcendent in his relation to the world. He made it 
and he upholds it continually by the all-pervading presence of 
his power. He rules and overrules even the sins and follies of 
man for his own glory and the good of his people. "Are not 
two sparrows sold for a farthing ? and not one of them shall 
fall on the ground without your Father : but the very hairs of 
your head are all numbered" (Matt. 10:29, 30). "We know 
that to them that love God, all things work together for good w 
(Rom. 8 : 29). 

This is the cheering and encouraging view of history. It is 
illustrated on every page. He who denies the hand of Provi- 
dence in the affairs of the world and the church is intellectually 
or spiritually blind. The historian has good reason to be an 



AGENTS OF HISTORY. 237 

optimist, notwithstanding all the dark and dismal chapters in 
history. 

Atheism denies, Deism ignores, the presence of God in 
history. Both resolve it into an aimless and hopeless play of 
human passions. But the atheist is simply a fool (Ps. 14 : 1), 
and the deist belittles God by making him a mere watchmaker 
or an idle spectator of the world he has made, and the events 
which come to pass. 

"What were a God who only from without 
Upon his finger whirled the universe about ? 
'Tis his, within himself to move the creature, 
Nature in him to warm, himself in nature ; 
So that what in him lives, and moves, and is, 
Shall ever feel the living "breath of his." 

2. On the part of man, history is the biography of the human 
race. It is the development of all his physical, intellectual and 
moral faculties, the actualization of his dominion over nature, 
and the progress and triumph of civilization. Man is a free 
and responsible agent who must render an account for the part 
he acts in his public and private life. 

God limits the exercise of his own sovereignty to give fair 
play to human freedom, and yet overrules it for his own holy 
purposes. " Man proposes, God disposes." All sins and errors 
in the world must be traced to man's agency, but God in his 
wisdom brings good out of evil j he makes the fall of Adam the 
occasion for the plan of redemption, the treason of Judas a 
means to the crucifixion and the consequent salvation. "He 
hath shut up all unto disobedience, that he might have mercy 
upon all. . . . For of him, and through him, and unto him are 
all things" (Rom. 11 : 32, 36 ; Gal. 3 : 22). 

The pantheistic and fatalistic view of history is the direct 
opposite of the atheistic and deistic view. It is destructive of 
the freedom and responsibility of man, and substitutes a dark 
fate or iron necessity for Providence and paternal government. 
It turns history into a Moloch who devours his own children. 
It begins and ends in darkness. 

3. Satan represents the preternatural or subnatural agency 
of history, in direct opposition, yet in final subservienc}^, to the 
supernatural and providential agency of God. The kingdom of 
darkness, as well as the kingdom of light, is organized under 
one head. Otherwise it would fall to pieces; for "a house 



238 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

divided against itself cannot stand." Satan is the personification 
of all evil influences in the world. He is the everlasting denier, 
a part of that " power which ever wills the bad and ever works 
the good." He is the tempter and seducer of the human race 
and the director-in-chief of all the movements which counteract 
the plan of redemption and tend to the ruin of man. He 
brought about the original fall; he controlled Cain, and cor- 
rupted the generation before the Flood ; he figured in the trial 
of Job ; he attempted to seduce Christ into an abuse of his 
Messianic powers; he controlled the demoniacal possessions; 
he nursed the opposition of the Jewish hierarchy to Christ and 
inspired their bloody counsel as well as the treason of Judas ; 
he is the fiend that scatters tares among the wheat ; he has 
much to do with heresies and schisms, with false doctrines and 
bad practices, with uncharitable orthodoxy, hypocrisy and spir- 
itual tyranny • he stirs up religious intolerance and persecution j 
he erects his temples and schools in all Christian lands. 

" Wherever God erects a house of prayer, 
The devil always builds a chapel there." 

Satan is most dangerous in the garb of an angel of fight. 
He finds his way into pews and pulpits, prayer-meetings, synods, 
general assemblies, and oecumenical councils. More than once 
he has occupied the chair of St. Peter in Rome and changed the 
vicar of Christ into an Antichrist. He can speak the language 
of orthodoxy and piety as well as of heresy and blasphemy. 
He quotes the Scriptures when it suits his purpose. He is ut- 
terly unscrupulous in the use of means, and succeeds best 
where he is least suspected, and where even his existence is 
denied. 

There are Satanic depths in many a bold, bad man, and in 
many dark chapters in history, both secular and religious. We 
may deny the one devil, but we cannot deny the many devils 
in human shape.* 

The incessant activity of Satan and his host imparts a fearful, 
tragic interest to history, covers it with crime and blood, and 
turns it into a scene of fierce conflict of light with the powers 
of darkness. 

* As Goethe says of infidels : 

"Den Bosen sind sie los, 
Die Bosen sind geblieben." 



HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. 239 

4. Relation of these agencies to each other. God rules su- 
preme j he sets all the powers of history in motion j he preserves 
and directs them, and he will stand at last on the dust as the 
Judge of all men and angels, giving to every one his due. 

Man is the battle-ground of God and Satan. He is under 
the power of the devil as far as he sins and disbelieves ; he is 
under the power of God as far as he acts rightly and obeys his 
will. He is to be delivered from the power of the prince of 
darkness and to become a free child of God and follower of 
Christ ; but his life is a constant conflict, and he daily prays : 
"Lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from the evil 
one." * 

Satan has more influence in the world than any man or com- 
bination of men, and will keep and exercise it till the judgment- 
day, but he is again and again defeated by God, and will at last 
be completely and finally overthrown, that God may be all in all. 

In the prologue to the wonderful book of Job, God and 
Satan appear as the supernatural movers of the history of man 
on earth, and in the end Satan is defeated, and Job comes out 
of his trial purified and perfected. Goethe reproduces the same 
idea in the prologue to the tragedy of Faust 

CHAPTER CXLVI. 

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

Philip Schaff : What is Church History ? A Vindication of the Idea of 
Historical Development, Philadelphia, 1846. — John Henry (afterwards Car- 
dinal) Newman : Development of Christian Doctrine, London and New York, 
1845. — Lyman Abbott : Tlie Evolution of Christianity, Boston, 1892. 

History is a constant motion and progress, but with many 
obstructions, retrogressions and diseases caused by sin and error. 
It progresses, like a sailing-vessel, not in a straight but in a zig- 
zag Hue on its course to the harbor. Whatever is living is also 
moving and growing. The dead only is done. Secular history is 
the progressive development of the idea of humanity, with its 
" struggle for existence and survival of the fittest" ; ecclesiastical 
history is the progressive development of the idea of Christian- 

* " Something in us near to hell ; something strangely near to God. . . . 
In our best estate and in our purest moments there is a something of the 
Devil in us which, if it could be known, would make men shrink from us." 
F. "W. Robertson on 51st Psalm. 



240 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

ity or the history of the origin, growth and triumph of the 
kingdom of God. 

Revelation is gradual and progressive, adapted to the capac- 
ity of man. It culminates in Christ. 

Humanity and the Church as a whole are subject to the same 
laws of growth with its attendant obstructions and diseases, as 
the individual man and the individual Christian. Every mem- 
ber of the body and every faculty of the soul exist at first in a 
potential state and attain their full proportions only by de- 
grees. The believer, too, like Christ himself (Luke 2 : 52 j Heb. 
5 : 8), has to pass through the different stages of life to perfect 
manhood in Christ (Eph. 2 : 20 ; 3 : 18, 19 ; 4 : 12, 13 ; 1 Pet. 
2:5). Regeneration by the Spirit is the beginning, the resur- 
rection of the body is the end, of this spiritual growth. So the 
Church at large goes through a process of outward expansion 
and inward consolidation till it shall cover the earth and be per- 
fected in unity arid holiness. 

The law of progress for his kingdom is laid down by our 
Saviour in the twin parables of the mustard seed and the leaven 
(Matt. 13 : 31, 32) : the one illustrates chiefly the external 
growth j the other, the internal mission of the Church in per- 
vading, transforming and sanctifying humanity. 

The true theory of development is that of a constant growth 
of the Church in Christ the head, or a progressive understand- 
ing and application of Christianity, until Christ shall be all in 
all. The end will only be the complete unfolding of the begin- 
ning. All other theories of development which teach a progress 
of humanity beyond Christ and beyond Christianity are false and 
pernicious. Christ is the beginning, the middle, and the end of 
church history. 

False theories of development : 

1. The Roman Catholic theory : an accumulation of dogmas and institu- 
tions without and beyond the Scriptures, under the guidance of an infal- 
lible pope. This leaves no room for reformation and revolution, and would 
exclude the Greek and the Protestant Churches. 

Cardinal Newman's essay on Development shows the logical process of 
transition from Anglo-Catholicism to Romanism by overleaping the Ref- 
ormation and the development of Protestantism, which fills two-thirds of 
modern history. 

2. The Rationalistic theory : a diminution and destruction of dogmas 
and institutions which interfere with the supremacy of reason. This nega- 
tive theory would make the immense labor of centuries as useless as a 
child's play. 



AUXILIARY SCIENCES. 241 

The true theory of development must be both conservative and pro- 
gressive, and provide for what is good and valuable in all ages and divisions 
of Christendom, — Greek, Latin and Protestant, ancient, mediaeval and 
modern. No labor in the Lord can ever be lost. 

The modern scientific theory of evolution in nature corresponds to the 
theory of development in history, which was previously discovered by 
historians and philosophers (like Hegel). But evolution in nature presup- 
poses a creative beginning and God's continued omnipresence and imma- 
nence. In the same way, development in history implies a supreme intel- 
ligence which endowed man with reason and will, set history in motion 
and directs it by an omnipotent will. Christ founded the Church, is ever 
present with it, and his teaching and example are the inspiring force in 
all true moral and spiritual progress. 

CHAPTER CXLVIL 

CENTRAL POSITION OF CHRIST IN HISTORY. 

Jesus Christ, the God-Man and Saviour of the world, is the 
center and turning-point of history, and the key which unlocks 
its mysteries. All history before him was a preparation for his 
coming, all history after him is the execution of his work. 

He appeared in the fullness of the time (Mark 1 : 15 ; Gal. 
4:4), when everything was ripe for him, and from his birth we 
justly date our chronology. He is "the desire of all nations." 
He came " to fulfill the law and the prophets/' and ah the nobler 
aspirations and unconscious prophecies of the ancient world. 

"All things were created by him, and for him" (Col. 1 : 16). 
He is the prophet, priest and king of redeemed humanity. All 
events must directly or indirectly, positively or negatively, 
nearly or remotely, advance his kingdom, until he shall reign 
king of nations as he now rules king of saints in his Church. 
The great empires of the world are rising and passing away one 
by one, but his kingdom is constantly advancing and will last 
forever. 

CHAPTER CXLVIII. 

AUXILIARY SCIENCES: ECCLESIASTICAL PHILOLOGY, GEOGRAPHY, 
CHRONOLOGY, DIPLOMATICS, SECULAR HISTORY. 

Historical Theology presupposes several preparatory and 
auxiliary sciences. 

I. Ecclesiastical Philology. This embraces the knowledge 
of the languages in which the sources of Church history are 



242 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

written, namely, the Greek and Latin for ancient, the Latin for 
mediaeval, the German, French, English and other European 
languages for modern times. 

. The Greek is the official language of the Greek Church, and 
was used by the apostles and the Eastern Fathers. 

The Latin became an ecclesiastical language with Tertullian 
at the end of the second century, and continues to be the offi- 
cial language of the Roman Church to this day. It was also 
used largely by the Reformers (Melanchthon, Zwingli, Calvin, 
etc.) and the older Protestant divines down to the end of the 
seventeenth century. Luther, Cranmer and Knox preferred 
their vernacular. The Latin is still employed in academic dis- 
sertations and festivities. 

Modern Church history is mostly written in the popular lan- 
guages which were developed in the Middle Ages under the 
influence of Christianity and rose to independence with the 
Renaissance and the Reformation. Dante exerted a creative 
influence upon the Italian, Wiclif and Chaucer upon the Eng- 
lish, Luther upon the German, Calvin upon the French, 
language and literature. The German, French, and English 
languages are now the chief organs of the intellectual and prac- 
tical activity of Christendom. They are emphatically the 
languages of religion and civilization. They occupy the position 
of the Hebrew, Greek and Latin in the ancient Roman empire. 
No student should neglect to master them sufficiently to use 
the ever-growing treasures of their literature. 

II. Ecclesiastical Geography. It is the basis of history. 
The use of maps is indispensable for orientation. There is 
a close correspondence between nations and countries. The 
East has shaped the Greek j the South, the Latin • the North 
and West, the Protestant Churches. The organization of the 
Church — the division into dioceses, bishoprics, parishes, pres- 
byteries, synods, etc. — is usually adapted to the existing politi- 
cal divisions. The territory of ancient Church history is that 
of the Roman empire, around the Mediterranean Sea. The 
geography of the middle ages extends farther north and west. 
The geography of modern history takes in the Western Continent 
and Australia, and the missionary fields in Asia and Africa. 

A comparative historical geography would show the extent 
of Christianity and the different religions with which it came 
in contact, — Judaism, Mohammedanism and heathenism. 



AUXILIARY SCIENCES. 243 

III. Ecclesiastical Chronology. This includes the various 
systems of determining the dates of events, from the creation, 
from the year of Rome, from the birth of Christ, from the 
flight of Mohammed, etc. 

IV. Ecclesiastical Diplomatics is the science of diplomas or 
official documents, such as bulls, briefs, statutes, patents, etc., 
and teaches their value and right use. Special departments 
are : Paleography, the science of ancient writings and manu- 
scripts of the Bible, etc. ; Sphragistics, the science of seals ; 
Numismatics, of coins; Heraldics, of weapons. 

V. Secular History or the General History of the world. 
It is so intimately interwoven with Church History that the 
one cannot be understood without the other. In the widest 
sense the former includes the latter as its most important de- 
partment. The Church is in the world and meets it at every 
point in friendly or hostile contact. During the middle ages, 
church and state were united. The history of the papacy is 
also a history of the German empire, and vice versa. This union 
has prevailed under a different form in the history of Europe 
down to this day, and in America during the colonial period. 
But even where church and state are separated, as in the 
United States, they act and react upon each other, and religion 
enters into all the ramifications of national and social life. 

LITERATURE. 

I. Helps for Ecclesiastical Greek and Latin : Suicer and Du Fresne, 
see Chapter LXXX. — Koffmane : Geschichte des Kircheiilateins, Breslau, 
1879 sqq. — Diez : Etymologisches Worterbuch der roman. Sprachen, Bonn, 
4th ed. 1878. 

II. The historical atlases of Wiltsch, W. Smith, Spruner, Droysen, 
Freeman, Labberton, Oort (Groningen, 1884), Werner (Freiburg i. B., 
1888), Grundemann : Missionsatlas (Gotha, 1867-70). 

III. Ideler : Lehrbuch der Chronologic, Berlin, 1831. — Piper : Kirclien- 
rechnung, Berlin, 1841. — Brinkmeier: Handbucli der liistor. Chronologie^ 
Leipzig, 2d. ed. 1882. — Brockmann : System der Chronologie, Stuttgart, 
1883. 

IV. Mabillon : Be re diplomatica, Paris, 1681, and later edd. — Gardt- 
hausen : Griech. Paldograpliie, Leipzig, 2d ed. 1877. — "Wattenbach : Das 
Schriftifcsen im Mittelalter, Leipzig, 2d. ed. 1877. — Ficker : Beitrdge zur 
Urlioidcnlehre, Innsbruck, 1877, 2 vols. 

V. "Works on general history are too numerous to be mentioned. Among 
brief compends, Karl Ploetz (Berlin, 8th ed. 1884) and Geo. P. Fisher 
(Outlines of Universal History, New York, 1885, etc., with good maps) are 
very useful. 



244 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

CHAPTER CXLIX. 

BRANCHES OF CHURCH HISTORY. 

The kingdom of G-od is as comprehensive as humanity. It 
embodies the redemption, regeneration and sanctifieation of the 
race. It aims to consecrate the individual, the family, the state 
and all the ramifications of society. It penetrates science, art, 
literature, and makes them subservient to the glory of God till 
he be all in all. It is the divine leaven which gradually pervades 
the whole lump of humanity. This is a slow but sure process, 
passing through many obstructions and apparent defeats, but 
approaching ever nearer its final goal. A thousand years for 
God are as one day. 

Church history has as many departments as human life and 
society. The principal topics are : Missions and Persecutions 
(expansion and contraction) ; Toleration and Freedom ; Organi- 
zation (Church Polity and Discipline) ; Worship (including 
Rites and Ceremonies) ; Christian Life and Activity ; Theology 
and Dogma. 

These departments have an organic relation to each other, 
and form one living whole. Each period is entitled to a pe- 
culiar arrangement, according to its character. The number, 
order and extent of the different divisions must be determined 
by their relative prominence and importance at a given time. 

CHAPTER CL. 

HISTORY OF MISSIONS. 

The history of Missions is a history of the extension of 
Christianity throughout the world. It will go on till the whole 
race is Christianized. 

There are three great missionary ages : the planting of the 
Church among the Jews, Greeks and Romans by the apostles ; 
the conversion of the barbarians of Europe in the middle 
ages j the modern missions in all parts of the globe looking to 
the conquest of all nations to Christ. 

1. Foreign Missions, or the spread of the Christian religion 
among non-Christian nations, civilized, semi-civilized, and bar- 



HISTORY OF PERSECUTION. 245 

barian. Heathen Missions, Jewish Missions, Mohammedan 
Missions (the last still in the future). 

2. Domestic Missions follow the tide of emigration to new 
countries and settlements under the government of Christian 
nations (as the British Provinces, the United States and Terri- 
tories, the Asiatic possessions of Russia, the European posses- 
sions in Africa). 

3. Inner Missions and City Missions, or the revival of vital 
Christianity in dead or indifferent sections of the Church, espe- 
cially among the neglected and worse than heathenish popula- 
tions of large cities, as London, Paris, Berlin, New York. 

The Literature on missions is immense, especially in the English lan- 
guage. The most complete list is by Eev. Samuel M. Jackson in The 
Encyclopaedia of Missions, ed. by E. M. Bliss, New York, 1891, vol. I. pp. 
575-661. 

CHAPTER CLI. 

HISTORY OF PERSECUTIONS. 

The history of Persecutions in the widest sense embraces all 
forms of persecution, from without and from within, of Chris- 
tians by non-Christians, of Christians by Christians, of heretical 
Christians by orthodox Christians, and vice versa, of churches 
against sects, of state-churches against dissenters and non-con- 
formists, of the Church by the State, of Jews by Christians. 
There is bloody and unbloody persecution. The former has 
nearly ceased, the latter still continues and will continue to the 
end of time. 

1. Foreign persecution of the Church by antagonistic re- 
ligions. Jewish persecution culminated in the crucifixion of 
the Messiah, expelled the apostles from the synagogue and 
lasted till the destruction of Jerusalem. Then followed the 
persecution of the Jews by the Christians down to the present 
time. Heathen persecution continued for three hundred years 
and ended in the conversion of the Roman empire. Mohamme- 
dan persecution began with the conquest of the Holy Land 
and reached its climax in the conquest of Constantinople (1453). 

2. Domestic persecution of Christians against Christians. 
Romanists persecuted Protestants, Protestants persecuted Ro- 
manists, both persecuted heretics and dissenters. The differ- 
ence is only one of degree and extent. All Christian sects have 



246 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

persecuted except those which never had a chance. For perse- 
cution conies from human nature, its selfishness, narrowness 
and love of power, and from the alliance of priest-craft and 
state-craft, or religion with politics. But the Quakers and the 
Baptists, to their great credit, have made liberty of conscience 
an article of their creed. 

Literature : Closely connected with the Literature on missions. 
Ruinart : Acta Martyrum. The Acta Sanctorum. — John Foxe : Boole of 
Martyrs. — Uhlhorn : Kampf des Christenthums mit dem Heidentlmm (trans- 
lated by Smyth and Ropes, New York, 1879). 



CHAPTER CLII. 

HISTORY OF RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 

The history of persecution is at the same time a history of 
Religious Liberty. The blood of patriots is the seed of civil 
liberty ; the blood of martyrs is the seed of religious liberty. 
The end of persecution is toleration, and the end of toleration 
is freedom. Religious freedom is the highest form of freedom ; 
it is a gift of God and an inalienable right of man who is made 
in the image of God. 

This principle is now recognized, in theory at least, by the 
most enlightened nations, and is becoming more and more a 
fundamental element of modern civilization and Christianity. 
"For freedom did Christ set us free" (Gal. 5 : 1). 

Philip Schafp : The Progress of Religious Freedom, as shown in the His- 
tory of Toleration Acts, New York (Scribners), 1889. 

CHAPTER CLIII. 

HISTORY OF ORGANIZATION. 

The history of Organization implies the government and dis- 
cipline of the Church. Christ founded a visible Church (Matt. 
16 : 18), appointed officers, and instituted the sacraments of 
baptism and the Lord's Supper, to be perpetually observed by 
his followers. 

On this foundation have been built, in the course of time, 
various forms of church polity : the Apostolic, the Primitive 
Episcopal, the Metropolitan and Patriarchal, the Papal, the An- 



HISTORY OF COUNCILS. 247 

glican, the Presbyterian, the Independent, the Methodist Epis- 
copal, etc. 

The relation of chnrch and state has passed through several 
distinct phases : (1) hostile separation (in the ante-Nicene age) ; 
(2) union, (a) the church ruling the state : hierarchy or theocracy 
(as in the mediaeval papacy), (b) the state ruling the church : 
caasaropapacy or Erastianism (as in the Byzantine empire, the 
Protestant state-churches, and in Russia) ; (3) friendly separa- 
tion and independence (as in the United States of America). 

Literature : Planck : Geschiclite der christlich-Mrchlichen Gesellscliafts- 
verfassung (1803-5), 5 vols. — Rothe : Anfange der christlichen Kirclie und 
Hirer Verfassung (1837). — Eitschl : Die Entstelmng der alfkatliolischen 
Eirclie (1887).— Hatch : TJie Growth of Church Institutions (1887). 

The history of the papacy, which is in fact a history of Latin Chris- 
tianity, has been especially treated in whole or in part by Platina, Pagi, 
Bower, Planck, Spittler, Baxmann, Wattenbach, Greenwood, Ranke, 
Creighton, Pastor, and others. Monographs on single popes : Lau, and 
Barmby on Gregory I. ; Voigt on Gregory VII. ; Reuter on Alexander 
III. ; Hurter on Innocent III. ; Drumann on Boniface VIII. ; Roscoe on 
Leo X., etc. 

CHAPTER CLIV. 

HISTORY OF COUNCILS. 

The history of Councils, or deliberative church assemblies, 
from the apostolic conference at Jerusalem (A.D. 50) to modern 
times, is to a large extent a history of Christian doctrine and 
discipline. 

The most prominent and influential councils are the oecu- 
menical councils, from that of Nicsea (325) to that of the Vati- 
can (1870). They formulated the dogmas and canons of the 
Greek and Latin Churches. 

The most important synods of the Reformed Church are the 
Synod of Dort (1620), and the Westminster Assembly (1647), 
which framed Confessions of Faith, and Directories of Worship 
and Discipline. 

The Presbyterian Churches have regular Synods and General 
Assemblies; the American Episcopal Church holds triennial 
Conventions ; the Methodist Episcopal Church, quadrennial 
General Conferences ; the Congregationalists and Baptists have 
occasional conventions of a voluntary character without legisla- 
tive power. 



248 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Besides official conventions, there are in modern times Roman 
Catholic Congresses, General Conferences of the Evangelical 
Alliance, Pan-Anglican, Pan-Presbyterian, and Pan-Methodist 
Councils, etc., which have no legislative but great moral power. 

Literature : The Acts of Councils, by Labbeus and Cossart, Harduin, 
and Mansi. The best history of Councils from a liberal Eoman Catholic 
standpoint is the Conciliengeschichte of Professor (afterwards Bishop) 
Hefele, continued by Cardinal Hergenrother (2d ed. revised, 1873-87, 
8 vols.). It is a history of Latin Christianity. For the history of Protest- 
ant Synods and free Conferences, the official minutes and proceedings 
must be consulted. 

CHAPTER CLV. 

HISTORY OF WORSHIP. 

The history of Worship includes an account of sacred sea- 
sons and places, a history of preaching and catechetical instruc- 
tion, liturgies, the administration of the sacraments, religious 
rites and ceremonies, ecclesiastical art (architecture, sculpture 
and painting), church poetry and church music. 

Organization and worship of the ancient Church are often 
combined under the name of Ecclesiastical Antiquities, which 
corresponds to Biblical Antiquities or Archeology in Exegetical 
Theology. An important part of Church Archaeology, of re- 
cent origin, relates to the catacombs of Rome, which present an 
interesting view of the manners and customs, of the life and 
death of the early Christians. 

Literature : Bingham, Augusti, Binterim, Siegel, Kraus. — On Chris- 
tian Antiquities : Smith and Cheetham : Dictionary of Christian Antiq- 
uities (London, 1780, 2 vols.). — De Eossi : Boma sotterranea cristiana 
(Eom. 1864-78, 4 vols. fol.). — On Liturgies : Eenaudot, Pamelius, Neale, 
Palmer, Hammond. — Numerous works on Church architecture, by Bunsen, 
Kugler, Lubke, etc. — The best work on hymnology is Julian's Dictionary 
of Hymnology, London and New York, 1892, pp. 1616. 



CHAPTER CLVI. 

HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN LIFE. 

The history of Christian Life or Christian morality and 
piety embraces the biographies of martyrs and saints (Martyr- 
ology and Hagiology), the history of asceticism and monasti- 



HISTORY OF DOCTRINES AND DOGMAS. 249 

cism, the progress of Christian philanthropy and benevolence, 
and the purifying and ennobling influences of Christianity 
upon individual, domestic, social and national life. 

Literature : Acta Sanctorum, by the Bollandists (a colossal work begun 
at Antwerp, 1643-1875, 61 vols, fol., with, a supplement). — Alban Butler : 
Lives of the Saints (1756-59, 4 vols., a popular and abridged reproduction 
of the Acta Sanctorum). — S. Baring-Gould : Lives of the Saints (1872-77, 
15 vols.). — Numerous histories of Monasticism, and the various Monastic 
Orders. Biographies of St. Benedict, St. Bernard, St. Francis of Assisi, 
etc. — The histories of Asceticism, Mysticism, Pietism, Methodism. — Max 
Goebel : Geschichte des christlichen Lebens in cler rheinisch-ivestphalischen 
evangel. Kirche (1860, 3 vols.). — Piper: Evangelischer Kalender (1873). — 
Uhlhorn : Die christliche Liebesthdtigkeit in der alien Kirche (1881), im 
Mittelalter (1884). — C. L. Brace: Gesta Christi; or, A History of Humane 
Progress under Christianity (New York, 1883, 5th ed. 1890). — Histories of 
hospitals, reformatories, prison discipline, temperance, etc. 

CHAPTER CLVIL 

HISTORY OF DOCTRINES AND DOGMAS. 

1. A history of Theology in the widest sense embraces the 
whole intellectual and literary activity of the Church. Every 
department of theology, exegetical, historical, systematic and 
practical, has its own history. Christian literature in all civil- 
ized languages surpasses in extent and variety all other kinds 
of literature. 

2. History of Christian Doctrines or history of dogmatic 
theology traces the origin and progress of every article of the 
Christian faith. The doctrines are developed in a certain order : 
first those of the Trinity and incarnation (in the Mcene age and 
Post-Nicene age) ; then those of sin and grace (in the Pelagian 
and semi-Pelagian controversies) ; next those of the rule of 
faith, justification, faith and good works (in the Reformation 
period). 

3. A special and the most important department in Doctrine 
History is the History of Dogmas (Dogmengeschichte). Truth 
comes from God and is revealed in the Bible ; doctrine is the 
conception and comprehension of truth by individuals ; dogma 
is doctrine formulated by the Church and made a law for its 
members. Dogma involves the element of authority* 

* Dogma is derived from Soneu, edotje, placuit, it seemed good, and means 
a public decree or ordinance ; comp. Luke 2:1; Acts 17 : 7 (imperial 



250 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

The Greek Church recognizes the dogmatic decisions of the 
seven oecumenical councils ; the Roman Church holds in ad- 
dition the decisions of Trent (1563) and of the Vatican Council 
(1870). The dogmatic system of the Lutheran Church was com- 
pleted with the Formula of Concord (1577), that of the Cal- 
vinistic Churches with the standards of the Westminster As- 
sembly (1647). 

4. The history of Heresies or perversions of Christian truths 
is an important part of the history of doctrines and dogmas. 
It is usually through conflict with heresies that the knowledge 
of Christian truth is evolved in the militant Church. Thus 
Arianism led to the Nicene Creed ; Apollinarianism, Nestorian- 
ism and Eutychianism prepared the way for the Chalcedonian 
Christology; Pelagius stimulated the development of the Au- 
gustinian anthropology ; the Reformation theology was brought 
out in conflict with the papacy ; the Council of Trent formu- 
lated the modern Roman Creed in opposition to the Protestant 
doctrines ; the Vatican Council settled the controversy between 
papal inf allibilists and anti-inf allibilists, or Ultramontanists and 
Gallicans, within the Roman Church. 

Literature : Histories of Dogmas in German by Munscher, Baum- 
garten — Crusius, Neander, Gieseler, Baur, Hagenbach (6th ed. by 
Benrath, 1888), Thomasius, Fr. Nitzsch, Harnack (1886-90, 3 vols., 
and Grundriss, 1889, 2d ed. 1892), Loofs (3d ed. 1893).— Roman Catholics : 
Petavius (Latin, the father of this scieiice), Klee, Schwane, Bach. 

In English: Hagenbach (translated from an older ed. by Buch, re- 
vised and enlarged by H. B. Smith, 1861, 2 vols., new ed., Edinburgh, 
1880, 3 vols.), Shedd (1863, 2 vols.), Sheldon (1886, 2 vols.), Schaff (the 
first vol. of his Creeds of Christendom, 5th ed. 1890), Harnack (the Grund- 
riss), Outlines of the History of Dogma, transl. by E. K. Mitchell, 1893, 
G. P. Fisher (in course of preparation for the series of theological text- 
books, edited by Briggs and Salmond). 

decree) ; Eph. 2 : 15 ; Col. 2 : 14 (the ordinances of Moses) ; Acts 16 : 4 
(the decision of the Council of Jerusalem). The Old Testament puts 
monotheism in the form of a dogmatic statement, Deut. 6 : 4. The New 
Testament mentions no dogma, strictly so called ; for the " decrees " or- 
dained by the Apostles and Elders, Acts 16 : 4, were not doctrinal, but 
disciplinary, and not intended to be permanent. From the beginning of 
the fourth century a closer distinction was made between dogma and 
canon, and the former confined to doctrinal, the latter to disciplinary, de- 
cisions of councils. 



THE WRITTEN SOURCES. 251 

CHAPTER CLVIII. 

SOURCES OF CHURCH HISTORY. 

The sources of Church History furnish authentic information 
of the facts and dates. They are partly written, partly un- 
written. Before the invention of the printing-press the written 
sources existed in manuscripts, which are still preserved in the 
old libraries of Europe, especially that of the Vatican, and must 
be referred to, in doubtful cases, for the verification of the origi- 
nal texts. But since that time nearly all the written sources 
are printed and published in book form. 

CHAPTER CLIX. 

THE WRITTEN SOURCES. 

For biblical history, we have the books of the Old and New 
Testaments, with supplementary and illustrative records of con- 
temporary nations. 

Ecclesiastical history is embodied in the immense and ever- 
growing literature of the Christian Church. 

The post-biblical sources may be divided into three classes of 
works : 

1. Official documents of ecclesiastical and civil authorities : 
Acts of councils, creeds, canons, liturgies, laws, monastic rules, 
briefs and bulls of popes, pastoral letters of patriarchs and 
bishops, proceedings of synods and other ecclesiastical bodies. 

Collections: Councils by Harduin (12 vols.) and Mansi (31 vols.). 
Papal Bulls by Cherubini (1586), Chevalier (1730), Cocquelines (1740), 
Barberi (1856), G-aude (1857 'sqq.). Liturgies by Goar (1647), Renau- 
dot (1716), Muratori (1748), Assemani (1766), Daniel (1847), Neale 
(1849). Creeds and Confessions of Faith by Hahn, Rechenberg, Nie- 
meyer, Schaff. Monastic Rules by Holsten and Brockie. Imperial 
Laws, the Theodosian and Justinian codes. The Monumenta Germanics for 
the mediaeval history of the papacy and the holy Roman empire. The doc- 
umentary sources of modern history are increasing with the growth of the 
Church and the multiplication of denominations and sects. 

2. Private writings of prominent actors in history : The 
church fathers, heretics and heathen, for the first six centuries ; 
the missionaries, monks, schoolmen and mystics, for the middle 



252 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

ages j the Reformers and their Roman Catholic opponents, for 
the sixteenth centnry j and the leading writers of all denomina- 
tions in more recent times. These works are the richest mines 
for the historian. They give history in its birth and actual 
movement. But they must be carefully sifted and weighed, 
especially the controversial writings, in which fact is generally 
more or less colored by party spirit, heretical and orthodox. 

Collections : The works of the Apostolic Fathers "by Gebhardt, 
Harnack and Zahn (1878), Hefele-Funk (1887), Lightfoot (1869-90 ; 
Greek text ed., 1890). The Apologists by Otto (3d ed. 1876 sqq.). All the 
Fathers by Migne (1844-66, the Latin Fathers in 222, the Greek in 167 
vols.). Select works of the Fathers in English in the Ante-Nicene, Ni- 
cene, and Post-Nicene Libraries, ed. by Coxe, Schaff and Wace. — The 
Corpus Beformatorum contains so far the works of Melanchthon, ed. by 
Bretschneider and Bindseil (1834-60, 28 vols.), and the works of Cal- 
vin, ed. by Baum, Cunitz, Eeuss, and Erichson (1863 sqq., so far 47 vols.). 
Separate editions of the works of Luther, Zwingli, Beza, Cranmer, Knox, 
etc. — The writings of Spener and Francke, for Pietism ; Zinzendorf and 
Spangenberg, for the Moravian community; Wesley (John and Charles) 
and Whiteneld, for Methodism ; Pusey, Newman, and Keble, for Anglo- 
Catholicism ; Dollinger, Eeinkens, and Von Schulte, for Old Catholicism, 
etc., etc. 

3. Accounts of contemporary historians, whether friends or 
foes, who were eye-witnesses of the events. Also autobiographies 
of the actors in history. The value of such works depends on 
the opportunities, capacity and credibility of the authors, which 
must be determined by careful criticism. 

Examples : Eusebius on the life of Constantine, and the Palestinian 
Martyrs. Augustin's Confessions. Eginhard's Life of Charlemagne. 
Eadmer's Life of Anselm. The correspondence of the Reformers, espe- 
cially the letters of Luther and Calvin. Melanchthon's Life of Luther. 
Beza's Life of Calvin. Knox's History of the Scotch Reformation. Crom- 
well's Letters. Clarendon's History of the Rebellion (anti-puritan). New- 
man's Apologia (for the inner history of Anglo-Catholicism). 

4. Historians who lived after the events may be counted 
among the direct and immediate sources so far only as they 
have drawn from trustworthy and contemporary records which 
have either been wholly or partially lost, like many of the au- 
thorities of Eusebius for the ante-Nicene period, or are inacces- 
sible to historians generally, as were formerly the papal Eegesta 
and other documents of the Vatican library and papal Archives. 
Thus Baronius, in his Annales, largely drew from these treas- 



THE UNWRITTEN SOURCES. 253 

ures, to which no Protestant would have been admitted before 
the liberal policy of Leo XIII. (1885). 

Other historians who nsed documents already published are 
only secondary and indirect sources, and their value depends 
upon the degree of accuracy and faithfulness with which they 
made use of the primary sources. 

CHAPTER CLX. 

THE UNWRITTEN SOURCES. 

1. To the unwritten sources belong churches, convents, works 
of sculpture, paintings, ruins, relics and other monuments ; also 
the countries in which the history was transacted. 

These sources have been largely increased by recent dis- 
coveries and excavations in Bible lands. The Egyptian and 
Assyrian literature is a supplement to the Old Testament. The 
Sinaitic Peninsula and Mt. Sinai are a commentary on Exodus 
and the Decalogue. Palestine is "a fifth Gospel." The Ro- 
man catacombs with their symbols illustrate the sufferings and 
trials, the simplicity and humility, the faith and hope of the 
Christians under heathen persecution. This source of ancient 
Church History, ignored by Mosheim and Gibbon, by Neander 
and Gieseler, was not properly opened up till after the middle 
of the nineteenth century. The basilicas and baptisteries em- 
body the spirit of the Nicene age. The Byzantine churches are 
characteristic of Byzantine Christianity. The Gothic cathedrals 
symbolize the genius of mediaeval Catholicism. The churches, 
sculptures and paintings of the Renaissance characterize the 
transition from the middle ages to modern times and the re- 
vival of classical taste. 

2. The habits and customs of the Christian nations and their 
surroundings supplement and illustrate the written and un- 
written sources. The historian should be a traveler, and put 
himself in contact with living and moving history. The pres- 
ent is the outcome of the past, and the tree is known fully by 
the fruit. 

The Greek Church can be studied best in Turkey, Greece and 
Russia ; the Roman Church, in Italy, Spain, France, Austria, 
Ireland and South America ; the Lutheran Church, in Germany 
and Scandinavia 5 the Reformed Churches, in Switzerland, 



254 THEOLOGICAL PROPAEDEUTIC. 

France, Holland, Great Britain and North America ; the Episco- 
pal Church, in England, the British Provinces and the United 
States 5 Congregationalism, in England and New England. In 
the mother countries of the Churches, we find not only the 
largest collections of written and printed sources, churches, 
museums, picture-galleries and monumental remains, but also 
the oral traditions and living representatives of the past, who 
exhibit the national genius and social condition of their fore- 
fathers in a far more instructive manner than ponderous vol- 
umes. 



CHAPTER CLXL 

DUTY OF THE HISTORIAN. 

There are different historical talents : For production and re- 
production, for original research and artistic composition, for 
philosophic comprehension and special investigation. There 
are historical miners who bring raw material to light ; historical 
manufacturers who work up the material into readable shape ; 
and historical retailers who epitomize and popularize scholarly 
labors for general use. Few are gifted with a deep insight into 
the secret laws, forces, currents and connections of events. We 
have several philosophies of general history ; but a philosophy 
of Church history is still a desideratum. Every man must fol- 
low his inclination and taste, and not despise another for doing 
what he cannot do and does not pretend to do. 

The first and last duty of the historian — whether he be a pro- 
ducer or reproducer, a generalist or specialist — is truthfulness. 
As the exegete has to explain the Scriptures according to their 
natural sense, without dogmatic bias, and to draw out all that 
is in them, but to put nothing foreign into them, so it is the 
business of the historian to reproduce history as God and men 
made it, without omission or addition, and not to pervert and 
utilize it for selfish or sectarian purposes. But alas ! many 
commentaries are impositions rather than expositions, and 
many histories are caricatures rather than portraits. 

The historian is a witness who must tell the truth, the whole 
truth, and nothing but the truth ; and he is also a judge who 



THE MASTERY OF THE SOURCES. 255 

must do strict and full justice to every person and event which 
conies before his tribunal. 

To be thus faithful and just, he needs a threefold qualifica- 
tion : scientific, artistic, and moral ; in other words, knowledge 
of the sources, power of composition, and a Christian spirit. 

So far as the historian combines these qualifications, he ful- 
fills his office. We can, at best, only approach perfection in this 
or in any other branch of study, but we must strive after it. 
Absolute success would require inf allibility ; and this is denied 
to mortal man. The Pope of Rome claims to be officially in- 
fallible, but he is mistaken sometimes, and his claim does not 
extend to matters of history. Even St. Paul knew only in part 
and saw " in a mirror, darkly." It is the exclusive privilege of 
the divine mind to see the end from the beginning with the eye 
of omniscience. 

The final solution of the mysteries of history is reserved for 
that heavenly state when we shall see "face to face," and shall sur- 
vey the developments of time from the heights of eternity. What 
St. Augustin so aptly says of the mutual relation of the Old and 
New Testament, " The New Testament is concealed in the Old, 
the Old Testament is revealed in the New n ("Novum Testamentum 
in Vetere latet, Yetus in Novo pateV), may be applied also to the 
relation of this world and the world to come. The history of the 
Church militant is, throughout, but a type, and a prophecy which 
can be perfectly understood only in the light of its fulfillment. 

There is a concealed and a revealed God in history as well as 
in nature : sufficiently concealed to try our faith, sufficiently 
revealed to strengthen our faith. 

CHAPTER CLXIL 

THE MASTERY OF THE SOURCES. 

The historian must first make himself master of the sources. 
This is a well-nigh endless task, but no one should attempt to 
write history without some knowledge of the primary sources 
of information ; as no one should attempt to write a commen- 
tary without a knowledge of the original languages of the Bible, 
He must look the actors in the face, and feel the pulse of events. 

The first thing for the historian is to select the sources for 
the particular period or topic which he wishes to investigate. 
Then he has to examine the genuineness and integrity of the 



256 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

sources, according to the laws of textual and literary criticism, 
and to measure the capacity and credibility of the witnesses. 
Thus only can he separate facts from fiction, truth from error. 
As history progresses, the sources multiply beyond the power 
of any individual to read and digest them. "We may do ex- 
haustive work in a special department of limited extent • but for 
many fields of history even the greatest scholars have to depend 
upon the labors of others, and avail themselves — with grateful 
acknowledgment — of collections, digests, indexes, and mono- 
graphs of specialists. The general historian and the specialist 
are indispensable to each other. The one looks out for the 
whole, the other for the parts. 

CHAPTER CLXIII. 

ARTISTIC COMPOSITION. 

The historian is an artist as well as a scholar. He ought to 
be endowed with historical imagination as well as with critical 
acumen. Familiarity with poetry and general literature will be 
of much benefit to him. He is more than an annalist and re- 
porter. History is not a heap of dry bones, but a living organ- 
ism, filled and ruled by a rational soul. The historian must 
reproduce the movements of the past, clothe the actors with 
flesh and blood, and make them live their lives over again. He 
is not permitted, indeed, to color history or to turn it into a 
romance, for the purpose of making it more interesting than it 
really is, but he must set the events in their true light and 
relation to their age, their antecedents and results, and give 
them a freshness and interest as if they were occurring before 
the eyes of the reader. 

In this respect the Church historians (especially the Ger- 
mans) are far behind the secular historians. They have been 
so much absorbed by the contents as to neglect the graces of 
style, method and arrangement. Hence Church history is con- 
fined to a professional class, and has not yet taken a place 
in general literature. You may find Gibbon and Macaulay in 
every gentleman's library, but very rarely Neander and Giese- 
ler. And yet the history of Christianity is the most interest- 
ing, as well as the most profound and most important, part in 
the annals of the human race. 



THE CHRISTIAN SPIRIT. 257 

The first requisite of a readable history is a lucid arrange- 
ment and grouping of the material. The best method is to 
combine judiciously the chronological and topical principles of 
division, so as to present at once the succession of events and 
the several parallel departments of history in due proportion. 
Accordingly, we would first divide the whole history into 
periods, not arbitrarily, but as determined by the actual course 
of events ; and then present each of these periods in as many 
sections or chapters as the material itself suggests. 

Another requisite, in these days of rapid motion and multi- 
plied studies, is to combine brevity and condensation with com- 
pleteness. In general Church history condensation becomes 
more and more a necessity and a virtue as the material in- 
creases. Brevity is the soul of wit not only, but also of a good 
speech and a good book. Life is too short and time too 
precious to read (except for reference) the thirteen folios (cov- 
ering so many centuries) of the Magdeburg Centuries, the 
thirty-eight folios of the Annals of Baronius, the sixteen quartos 
of Tillemont, the forty volumes of Fleury, the forty-five volumes 
of Schroeckh, and the twenty-nine volumes of Rohrbacher. 

" Wie die Welt lauft winter wetter, 
Wird stets die Geschichte breiter; 
Und uns wird je mehr, je langer 
Nothig ein Zusammendr anger." 



CHAPTER CLXIV. 

THE CHRISTIAN SPIRIT. 

The moral qualification of the historian may be comprehended 
in the Christian spirit, which is the spirit of truth and love. 
" Malice to none, charity for all." The secular historian must 
have a general sympathy with humanity, according to the motto : 

"Homo sum' humani nihil a me alienum jputo." 

The Church historian must have a general sympathy with Chris- 
tianity in all its forms and phases^ and follow the motto : 

** Christianus sum : Christiani nihil a me alienum putoS' 

No one can interpret poetry without poetic feeling and taste, 
or philosophy without speculative talent j so no one can rightly 



258 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

comprehend and exhibit the history of Christianity without the 
spirit that animates and controls it. An unbeliever could pro- 
duce only a repulsive caricature, or at best a lifeless statue. 

The higher the historian stands on Christian ground, the 
wider is his horizon, and the clearer and fuller his view of the 
regions below. Even error can be fairly seen only from the 
position of truth. "Verum est index sui et falsi." 

Christianity is the absolute truth, which, like the sun, both 
reveals itself and enlightens all that is dark. 



CHAPTER CLXV. 

USES OF CHURCH HISTORY. 

(From Schaff's Church History, I. 20 and 21.) 

Church history is the most extensive, and, including the his- 
tory of the Old and New Testaments, the most important branch 
of theology. It is the storehouse from which theology derives 
its supplies. It is the best commentary on Christianity itself. 
The fullness of the stream is the glory of the fountain from 
which it flows. 

1. Church history has a general interest for every cultivated 
mind, as showing the moral and religious development of our 
race, and the gradual execution of the divine plan of redemption. 
A knowledge of it should be an essential part of general culture. 

2. It has special value for the theologian and minister of the 
Gospel, as the key to the present condition of Christendom and 
the guide to successful labor for the future. The present is the 
fruit of the past, and the germ of the future. No work can 
stand unless it grows out of the real wants of the age and strikes 
firm root in the soil of the past. Those who despise their 
fathers have no claim upon the respect of their children. 
Church history is no mere curiosity shop ; its facts are not dead 
men's bones. It embodies living realities, the general principles 
and laws for our own guidance and action. Who studies 
Church history studies human nature under the influence of 
Christianity as it was, as it now is, and as it will be to the end 
of time. 

3. The history of the Church has practical value for every 
Christian as a storehouse of wisdom and experience, warning 



PERIODS AND EPOCHS. 259 

and encouragement. It is the philosophy of facts, Christianity 
in living examples. History in general is described by Cicero 
as " testis temporum, lux veritatis, et magistra vitce," and by Dio- 
dorus as " a handmaid of Providence, a priestess of truth, and 
a mother of wisdom." This is true in the highest degree of 
Church history. Next to the holy Scriptures, which are them- 
selves a history and depository of divine revelation, there is no 
stronger proof of the continual presence of Christ with his 
people, no more thorough vindication of Christianity, no richer 
source of useful learning, no stronger incentive to virtue and 
piety, than the history of Christ's kingdom. Every age has a 
message from God to man, which it is of the greatest importance 
to understand. 

The Epistle to the Hebrews describes in stirring eloquence 
"the cloud of witnesses" from the old dispensation for the en- 
couragement of the early Christians. But we are " compassed 
about " with a far greater and brighter cloud of apostles, evan- 
gelists, martyrs, confessors, fathers, reformers and saints of all 
ages and tongues, and this cloud is constantly increasing. In 
reading the thoughts and prayers, the lives and deaths of those 
heroes of faith and love, who were living epistles of Christ, the 
salt of the earth, the benefactors and glory of our race, we are 
elevated, edified, comforted and encouraged to follow their ex- 
ample that we may at last, by the grace of God, be received 
into their fellowship to spend with them a blessed eternity in 
the praise of the same God and Saviour of the world. 

CHAPTER CLXVI. 

PERIODS AND EPOCHS. 

Church history is divided into several ages or periods which 
represent the various stages of its progress. The dividing line 
between two periods is called an epoch: it marks the close of 
one and the beginning of another period, and introduces a 
new principle or a new phase of development. Thus the birth 
of Christ, the Day of Pentecost, the conversion of Paul, the 
council of Nicsea, the fall of Constantinople, the invention of the 
printing-press, the discovery of America, the outbreak of the 
Reformation, the Edict of Nantes, the Toleration Act of 1688, 
the American Declaration of Independence, the French Revolu- 



260 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

tion, the Vatican Council of 1870, are epoch-making facts or 
events, followed by new periods. The term age is often used 
also in the limited sense of a generation, as when we speak 
of the age of Constantine, of Charlemagne, of Hildebrand, of 
Queen Elizabeth. 

The periods of history should not be artificially made after a 
certain mechanical scheme of equal time-divisions of years or 
centuries. They must faithfully represent the successive ages 
of history itself , which in different times and countries moves 
with very unequal degrees of rapidity, corresponding to the 
means of communication from the slow pace of the caravan to 
the speed of the railroad and magnetic telegraph. 

« 

CHAPTER CLXVII. 

PERIODS OF BIBLICAL HISTORY. 

Biblical or sacred history is the development of the divine 
Revelation and the kingdom of God from the Creation to the 
close of the Apostolic age. It runs parallel with the Scriptures 
from Genesis to Revelation. 

Here we must distinguish the dispensation of the law and 
the dispensation of the gospel, or the history of the Old Testa- 
ment religion and that of the New Testament religion. 

I. Under the Old Dispensation : from the Creation down to 
John the Baptist, or the advent of Christ. 

II. Under the New Dispensation : Christ and the Apostles, 
or primitive and normative Christianity in its divine-human 
founder and inspired organs, from the birth of Christ to the 
death of John at the close of the first century (A.D. 1-100). 

CHAPTER CLXVIII. 

periods of christian church history. 

Church History in the narrow sense, or the History of Chris- 
tianity, begins with the birth of Christ, and includes the second 
division of Biblical history, already mentioned. 

Main divisions : Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern Christianity. 

I. Anclent Christianity embraces the first six centuries 
to Gregory I. (590) : The Graeco-Latin, patristic, old catholic 



PERIODS OF CHRISTIAN CHURCH HISTORY. 261 

Church, the common stock from which the Greek, the Roman, 
and the Protestant Churches have sprung. 

Ancient Christianity corresponds to the patriarchal period in 
Jewish history. Its theatre is the Old Roman empire around 
the Mediterranean, i.e., western Asia, northern Africa, southern 
Europe ; its nationalities, the Jews, the Greeks, and the Ro- 
mans ; the language of its literature is chiefly the Greek, and, 
after the close of the second century, also the Latin. 

Subdivisions : 

(a) The Life of Christ, and the Apostolic age, stand by them- 
selves as the culmination of Biblical history and the beginning 
of Church history. 

(&) The Ante-Nicene Age, 100-325. The period of persecu- 
tion under the Roman empire to the conversion of Constantine 
the Great and the first oecumenical council of Nicaea. 

(c) The Nicene and Post-Nicene Age. 325-600. The period 
of Graeco-Roman State-Christianity, ruled by Christian empe- 
rors, patriarchs, and oecumenical councils, from Constantine the 
Great to Pope Gregory the Great. 

II. Medieval Christianity from the close of the sixth to 
the beginning of the sixteenth century, or from Gregory I. to 
the Reformation, A.D. 590-1517. Character : The partial con- 
version and civilization of the barbarians in Europe, and prep- 
aration for modern Christianity and civilization. The Greek 
and Roman Churches, divided, pursue their independent course ; 
the Latin Church extends west, among the Celtic and Germanic 
races; the Greek, northeast among the Slavonians (in Russia). 
The rise and progress of the papacy, monasticism, scholasticism, 
and mysticism ; the crusades ; the papal schism and the re- 
formatory councils. The anti-catholic sects. The revival of 
letters and arts. The invention of printing. The discovery of 
America. The rise of independent nationalities. The abuses 
and corruptions of the Church. The forerunners of Protestant- 
ism (Wiclif in England, Hus in Bohemia, Savonarola in Italy, 
Wessel in Holland, Reuchlin and Erasmus in Germany and 
Switzerland). 

Mediaeval Christianity corresponds to the Mosaic theocracy 
in the old dispensation. It moves chiefly on European soil, 
northward and westward, among the Latin and barbarian (Cel- 
tic, Germanic and Slavonic) races, and its literature is chiefly 
Latin, the official language of the Roman Church. 



262 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Subdivisions : 

(a) The missionary period of the middle ages from Greg- 
ory I. to Gregory VII. (590-1073). 

(b) The palmy period of the papacy from Gregory VII. to 
Boniface VIII. (1073-1294). 

(c) The decay of the mediaeval papacy and scholasticism, the 
revival of letters, and preparation for a Reformation, from 
Boniface VIII. to Leo X. and Martin Lnther (1294-1517). The 
last period has a striking resemblance to the nineteenth cent- 
ury : Old things passing away, all things becoming new. 

III. Modern Christianity, from the Reformation of the 
sixteenth century to the present time. Latin Christianity is 
divided between conservative Romanism and progressive Prot- 
estantism. The founding of the evangelical churches, Luther- 
an, Reformed, and Anglican, by the labors of Luther, Zwingli 
and Calvin on the continent, Cranmer in England, and Knox in 
Scotland. Reaction of Romanism j the Council of Trent ; the 
order of the Jesuits, henceforth the chief support of the revived 
papacy, and the indefatigable enemy of Protestantism. The 
disastrous Thirty Years' War in Germany, ending with the 
legal recognition of the Lutheran Church by the treaty of West- 
phalia (1648). The heroic war of emancipation of the Holland- 
ers against the tyranny of Spain. The Synod of Dort (1620). 
The Edict of Nantes by Henry IV. (1598), its revocation by 
Louis XIV. (1685) ; the expulsion of the Huguenots from 
France, who became a blessing to other nations, while a rem- 
nant remained at home as a church of the desert, hoping for 
better times. The Puritan rebellion, or rather the second 
reformation in England ; the Westminster Assembly and West- 
minster standards of the Presbyterian Churches (1647) ; the 
Cromwellian commonwealth 5 the restoration of episcopacy; 
the revolution of 1688, the Act of Toleration, and consequent 
division of English Church history into separate denomina- 
tional channels. The Pietistic and Moravian movements in Ger- 
many. The Methodist revival in England and the American 
colonies. The rise and progress of Deism and Rationalism all 
over Europe. The American secession from England, and the 
peaceful separation of Church and State, with full religious 
liberty guaranteed by the national Constitution. The French 
Revolution and the temporary abolition of Christianity, fol- 
lowed by the restoration of the Roman Catholic Church under 



PERIODS OF CHRISTIAN CHURCH HISTORY. 2G3 

Napoleon with toleration and government support of other 
churches (Reformed and Lutheran), and the Jewish synagogue. 

Then began the revival of Protestantism and Romanism all 
over Europe. The centennial celebration of the Reformation 
and the union of the Lutheran and Reformed Churches in 
Prussia (1817). The old Lutheran reaction in Germany. Ox- 
ford Tractarianism or Anglo-Catholicism in England resulting 
in a large secession to Rome (1845), headed by Newman and 
Manning (both subsequently made cardinals), and a ritualistic 
revival of Christian life within the Church of England. 
Triumph of Ultramontanism over Gallicanism in the Vatican 
Council of 1870, which declared the dogma of papal infallibility, 
thus completing the hierarchical pyramid ; but this was followed 
by the Old Catholic secession under the lead of Pol linger. The 
Franco-German war, and the establishment of a Protestant 
empire under the headship of Prussia. The CuMurkampf with 
Rome ; the May-laws, and their abrogation. Prince Bismarck 
and Pope Leo XIII. on the way to Canossa, but at a respectful 
distance, and asking and granting a quid pro quo. The papacy 
and the French republic. The school question in connection 
with religious instruction. Conflict between religion and the 
various forms of skepticism and infidelity. Growing activity 
in all departments of theological learning and popular liter- 
ature, in foreign and domestic missions, in practical works 
of philanthropy and benevolence. Tendencies towards union 
among different Churches. Bible Societies ; Sunday Schools • 
Young Men's Christian Associations ; Christian Endeavor So- 
cieties. Evangelical Alliance ; pan- Anglican, pan-Presbyterian, 
pan-Methodist Councils. Opening up of the heart of Africa. 
An age of discoveries and inventions, which stimulate and facili- 
tate the conversion and civilization of the whole world. 

At the end of the nineteenth century, Christianity stands on 
the threshold of a glorious past and a more glorious future 
which no man can forecast. 

Subdivisions : 

(a) The age of the Protestant Reformation, and the papal coun- 
ter-Reformation (1517-1648). 

(b) The age of scholastic and polemic confessionahsm in 
conflict with nonconformity and subjective piety (from the 
middle of the seventeenth to the middle of the eighteenth 
century). 



264 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

(c) The age of revolution, revival and progress in all Churches 
and upon all continents (down to the close of the nineteenth 
century). 

CHAPTER CLXIX. 

HISTORY OF ISRAEL. 

We now proceed to a brief survey of the most important 
branches of Historical Theology. 

The Jewish Church History begins with Abraham and closes 
with John the Baptist. 

It is a history of the positive preparation for Christianity 
by a divinely organized theocracy. " Salvation is from the 
Jews" (John 4 : 22). This wonderfully gifted and indestructi- 
ble people, whose fit symbol is the burning bush, was chosen by 
God to know and to worship him amidst surrounding idolatry, 
and to prepare the way for the coming of the Messiah. Theirs 
are "the adoption, and the glory, and the covenants, and the 
giving of the law, and the service of God, and the promises " • 
theirs are " the fathers " ; and of them is " Christ as concerning 
the flesh, who is over all, God blessed forever " (Rom. 9 : 4, 5). 
Herein lies the universal and permanent interest and value of 
the Jewish history and the Old Testament literature. It repre- 
sents two concurrent movements : a descending revelation of 
God to man, and an ascending moral and spiritual aspiration 
of man to God, both culminating in the divine-human Messiah 
and Saviour. 

In a wider sense, the History of the Old Covenant includes 
also the antediluvian history of religion from the creation of 
man, and the connections of the Jewish nation with the sur- 
rounding heathen empires of Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, 
Greece and Rome. 

The principal divisions are the following : 

1. The primitive or antediluvian period, from the creation 
of Adam to Noah and the call of Abraham. The creation of 
man ; the state of innocence ; the *f all ; the antediluvians ; the 
flood ; Noah and his sons ; the dispersion of nations. 

2. The patriarchal period, from Abraham to Moses. Abra- 
ham j Isaac ; Jacob ; Joseph ; the sojourn in Egypt j the growth 
into a nation ; the oppression by Pharaoh (Rameses II. or Sesos- 
tris) ; the preparation and call of Moses. 



HISTORY OF ISRAEL. 265 

3. The Mosaic period, from Moses to Samuel. The Exodus 
from Egypt ; the miraculous passage through the Red Sea ; the 
establishment of the theocracy from Mount Sinai ; the Deca- 
logue ; the Mosaic legislation and worship j the wanderings 
through "the great and terrible wilderness" of the Sinaitic 
Peninsula ; the conquest of Canaan under Joshua ; the anarch- 
ical period of the Judges ; the peaceful episode of Ruth. 

4. The period of the Jewish monarchy and prophecy. The 
undivided monarchy (B.C. 1095-975) : The reigns of Saul 
(forty years), David (forty), and Solomon (forty). The divided 
monarchy : The kingdom of Judah from Rehoboam to the de- 
struction of Jerusalem and the Babylonian Captivity (B.C. 588). 
The kingdom of Israel from Jeroboam to the end of the king- 
dom (B.C. 722). The older prophets : Elijah and Elisha, 
Isaiah, Jonah, Amos, Hosea, Micah, Nahum, Zephaniah, Hab- 
akkuk, Jeremiah (till B.C. 588). 

5. The Babylonian Captivity, B.C. 588 to 536. Contact with 
foreign nations and ideas. The prophets Daniel and Ezekiel. 

6. The period of reconstruction under Ezra, the model priest 
and scribe, and Nehemiah, the model statesman and patriot, 
and the post-exilian prophets, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. 
Gradual formation of the Hebrew canon. Dispersion of the 
Jews. 

7. The Maccabaean period, or the whole period intervening 
between Nehemiah and John the Baptist. The invasion of 
Alexander the Great ; Palestine subjected to Macedonian rule. 
The heroic Maccabaean war of independence against Antiochus 
Epiphanes (175-164 B.C.), The Jewish Apocrypha. The Greek 
Version (Septuagint) of the Hebrew Scriptures. The Hebrews 
and the Hellenists. The sects of the Pharisees, Sadducees 
and Essenes. The Messianic expectations. John the Baptist, 
the last of the prophets. Palestine subject to Roman rule 
since Pompey and Caesar. 

8. The history of the Jewish theocracy closes with the de- 
struction of Jerusalem and the Temple (A.D. 70), which was 
foretold by Christ, and graphically and minutely described by 
Josephus as an eye-witness. 

This part of its history may be embraced in what is called 
the History of New Testament Times. (See next chapter.) 

The history of the Jews after the destruction of the theocracy 
lies outside of biblical or ecclesiastical history, but the treat- 



266 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

ment of the Jews by the Christian Church belongs to the history 
of religious persecution. 

Literature : The chief sources for the history of Israel are the books 
of the Old Covenant, and the Archaeology of Josephus. The works of 
Philo on Moses, etc., are of little historical value, on account of their alle- 
gorical interpretation. The Greek and Latin historians depend upon 
Josephus. The Egyptological and Babylonio-Assyrian discoveries throw 
side-lights on the Jewish history. 

Heinrich Ewald (d. 1875) : History of the People of Israel, Gottingen, 
1843, 3d ed. 1864-68, 7 vols. ; English translation, London, 1868-76, 5 
vols. Marks an epoch as the first critical and yet profoundly religious 
construction of the history of Israel, as the unique people of divine revela- 
tion. Comp. also his Prophets, and Poetical Books of the Old Testament. 

Dean Stanley (d. 1881) : Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, 
London and New York, 1863-76, 3 vols. A picturesque popular conden- 
sation of Ewald, who once told him, when a student of Oxford, that the 
little New Testament contained the whole wisdom of the world. 

The conservative orthodox school is represented by 

Hengstenberg, in his posthumous History of the Kingdom of God in 
the Old Covenant (Berlin, 1870) ; Kurtz, in his unfinished History of the 
Old Covenant (Berlin, 1848 and 1855) ; Kohler, in his Lehrbuch der bib- 
lischen Geschichte (Erlangen, 1875-88) ; also by Von Hofmann, in an inde- 
pendent way; and by Edersheim (in several works). 

Since Ewald, a new critical reconstruction has gradually been elabo- 
rated, which reverses the traditional order of the relation of the law and 
prophecy. This theory puts the prophetic development before the priestly, 
and regards the levitical priest-code (based in part on Ez. 40-48), with 
its stiff, narrow legalism and elaborate ritual, as an exilian and post- 
exilian contraction and petrifaction of the grand prophetic ideas, which 
at last were revived and fulfilled by Christ. It was first suggested by 
Eeuss in lectures (1833), and independently by Vatke (1835) and George 
(1835), and carried out by Graf (1869) and Kayser (1874) — two pupils of 
Reuss, — and especially by Wellhausen (1878), who gave to it unity and 
consistency. "Wellhausen starts from the facts that the oldest sources 
know nothing of a concentration of worship in Jerusalem, nor of a minute 
sacrificial ritual, nor of a levitical and priestly hierarchy. Kuenen in 
Holland (1869 and 1875) and Renan in France (1887) have arrived, by in- 
dependent research, at similar conclusions, and the advanced Hebrew 
scholars of England (as W. R. Smith, Cheyne, Driver) and of America 
(as Briggs, Brown, Toy, H. P. Smith, Moore) have substantially adopted the 
chief results, but with higher views of inspiration. This theory is closely 
connected with the complicated critical investigations of the sources of 
the Pentateuch or Hexateuch (including the book of Joshua), which are 
not yet concluded, and will probably undergo considerable modifications. 
It can only be superseded by another historical construction which is 
equally consistent and does justice to all the facts in the case. 

Wellhausen (formerly of Marburg, now of Gottingen, originally a dis- 
ciple of Ewald) : History of Israel, Berlin, 1878 ; 2d ed. under the title 
Prolegomena to the History of Israel, 1883 ; 3d ed. 1886 ; English translation 



HISTORY OF BIBLICAL TIMES. 267 

with introduction by W. R. Smith, London, 1885. Comp. the abridgment 
in the art. "Israel" in the Encycl. Brit., vol. xiii. 

Stade (Giessen) : Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Berlin, 1881 sqq. 

Kuenen (Leiden, d. 1881): The Worship of Israel, Haarlem, 1875; The 
Prophets and Prophecy in Israel, Leiden, 1875 ; Historico-Critical Introduction 
to the Old Testament, Leiden, 1885 sqq. Translated, in part, from the Dutch. 

Kenan : History of the People of Israel, Paris, 1887 sqq., 4 vols. Trans- 
lated. Brilliant, but radical and secular. 

Ed. Konig : The Chief Problems of the Old Israelitic History, Leipzig, 
1884. He adopts the Wellhausen hypothesis, but without surrendering 
the inspiration and authority of the Old Testament. 

Kittel : History of the Hebrews, Grotha, 1888 sqq. Occupies a middle 
position and writes from the standpoint of universal history. 

James Robertson (University of Glasgow) : The Early Religion of Israel, 
Edinburgh and New York, 1892 (324 pp.). Conservative. 



CHAPTER CLXX. 

HISTORY OF BIBLICAL TIMES. 

The History of Biblical Times is auxiliary to Biblical His- 
tory, and supplies the frame-work to it. We may treat it as a 
whole, or divide it into History of Old Testament Times, and 
History of New Testament Times. The former deals with the 
heathen nations with whom the Jews came in contact from the 
time of Moses to the exile, and derives much material from the 
recent researches in Egyptology and Assyriology. The latter 
gives an account of the environments of Christ and the Apos- 
tles, and facilitates the understanding of the Gospels, Epistles 
and the Apocalypse. It has been recently raised to the dignity 
of a separate branch of Church history. 

The History of New Testament Times proves that Christ ap- 
peared when " the time was fulfilled " (Mark 1 : 15 ; Gal. 4 : 4), 
that is, when the preparations for the coming of Christ among 
the Jews, Greeks, and Romans were completed, and when the 
world had reached the point of the greatest need of a Saviour. 
It shows that Christianity was fully adapted to the wants of the 
times in which it appeared, and yet cannot be derived from any 
of the then existing forces and circumstances. It was a new 
revelation, towards which all previous revelations of God and 
aspirations of men were tending. The religion of the Jews, 
the literature of Greece, and the polity and law of Rome con- 
tributed their share, but could not of themselves produce it. 



268 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

The History of New Testament Times includes three parts : 

1. The state of Judaism at the time of Christ and the 
Apostles. 

2. The state of Heathenism in the Roman Empire at the 
same period. 

3. The contact between Judaism and Grgeco-Roman Hea- 
thenism. 

The chief sources on the political and moral condition of the 
Jews from the time of Malachi to the destruction of Jerusa- 
lem are the Jewish Apocrypha and the works of Josephus, 
especially his Archaeology. The sources on the condition of 
the Roman Empire are the Greek and Roman classics, especially 
Tacitus. 

Literature : The History of Biblical Times (Biblische Zeitgeschichte), 
as a separate department, was founded by Schneckenburger (Profes- 
sor in Bern, d. 1848), in his Vorlesungen uber die Neutestamentliclie Zeit- 
gescMchte (posthumously edited by Lohlein, Frankf. 1862). Hausrath 
of Heidelberg followed with a larger work in four parts, under the same 
title (1868 ; 3d ed. 1879). Schurer's admirable Lehrbuch der Neutesta- 
mentlichen Zeitgeschichte (Leipzig, 1874) has been greatly enlarged in a 
second edition under the new title : History of the Jewish People at the Time 
of Christ (Leipzig, 1885 and 1890, 2 vols. ; English translation, Edinburgh, 
1885 sqq.). It is a masterpiece of exact critical learning, but confined to 
Jewish history. George P. Fisher (of Yale University, New Haven), in 
The Beginnings of Christianity (New York, 1877), covers in part the same 
ground, and enters also into the field of Gospel criticism. 

Contributions to this department : Wellhausen : Pharisees and Saddu- 
cees (1874). Keynolds : John the Baptist (1874). Delitzsch on Jesus and 
Hillel (3d ed. 1879) ; and A Day in Capernaum (1871). Weber : System 
of the Palestinian Jewish Theology (1880). Pick: The Life of the Jews at 
the Time of Christ (1881). Lucius: Essenism in its Relation to Judaism 
(1881). Merrill: Galilee in the Time of Christ (1885) . Stapfer : Palestine 
at the Time of Christ (3d ed. Paris, 1885, also in English). Drummond : 
The Jewish Messiah (1877). Stanton : The Jewish and Christian Messiah 
1888). 



CHAPTER CLXXI. 

THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 

Jesus Christ is the founder of Christianity. His life on earth 
is the fountain-head of its history. His advent marks the turn- 
ing-point of ages, the end of the past, and the beginning of an 
endless future. He is the fulfiller of the law and the prophets, 



THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 269 

and of all the noble aspirations of heathendom, the Redeemer 
and Saviour of men. His person is the great moral miracle of 
history, and rises in solitary grandeur above the surrounding 
plane of a fallen and sinful race — the one only sinless and per- 
fect man, in whom " all the fullness of the Godhead dwelleth 
bodily" (Col. 2:9). 

A biography of Christ is the most difficult task of the church 
historian. It was written by the Evangelists, only in frag- 
ments, bat with unsurpassed simplicity, frankness, modesty 
and reverence ; and it can never be done any better for the 
general reader and for practical purposes. All attempts to 
versify or beautify the gospel story are failures. It is above 
all poetry. But it must be written and rewritten for scholars 
as well as for the common people. Every age must renew for 
itself the picture of Christ, who is the inspiration of all ages 
and the model for all classes and conditions of men. He is, in 
the language of a distinguished man of letters, " our divinest 
symbol, a symbol of quite perennial, infinite character, whose 
significance will ever demand to be anew inquired into, and 
anew made manifest." * 

The dogmatic theologian may construct his Christology in a 
descending line, beginning, like John, with the eternal Logos 
in the bosom of the Godhead, and coming down to the incar- 
nation. But the historian must follow rather the Synoptical 
Gospels, which begin with the human genealogy of Jesus, as the 
son of Abraham and of Adam, thus connecting him with the 
Jewish race and the whole human family. He must endeavor 
to construct a truly human history of Jesus of Nazareth, from 
infancy to manhood, and mark the stages of his Messianic con- 
sciousness and his ethical development. Jesus lived, spoke, 
suffered and died like a man, and became in all things like 
unto us. " The child grew, and waxed strong, filled with wis- 
dom : and the grace of God was upon him " (Luke 1 : 40). " He 
was tempted in all points, like as we are, yet without sin" (Heb. 
4 : 15). " He was made perfect through sufferings. ... In that 
he himself hath suffered, being tempted, he is able to succor 
them that are tempted" (Heb. 2 : 10, 18). 

* Thomas Carlyle : Sartor Besartus, Book III., chapter 3. Neander (in 
the preface to his Leben Jesu) says : "Das Christiisbild ist das, was nicht von 
gestern und heute, doch immer mit der Henschheit sich verjiingt mid mit neuer 
himmelanstrebender Jugendlcraft die alternde Welt durchdringt." 



270 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

But we search in vain for any moral defect in Lis private or 
public character. All his biographers (even Strauss and Renan) 
admit that history presents no parallel to him, and that religion 
has never risen so high, nor is likely ever to rise higher than 
in the person of the Son of Mary. The perfection of Christ's 
humanity compels the recognition of his divinity, according to 
his own claim and the testimony of his disciples. The sinless 
Son of Man is truly the Son of G-od, and all his amazing claims 
become intelligible and consistent only on the basis of his divine 
origin and character. With this admission, his miraculous 
works appear to be the natural and necessary manifestations 
of his miraculous person. 

" Deep strike thy roots, O heavenly vine, 
Within our earthly sod ! 
Most human and yet most divine, 
The flower of man and God ! " 



CHAPTER CLXXIL 

LITERATURE ON THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 

The life of Christ has always been the shining light of the 
Church, and the richest source of edification, comfort and wor- 
ship. It has been reproduced, and will continue to be reproduced 
to the end of time, in countless sermons, books of devotion and 
works of art. 

The " Harmonies " of the Gospels began in 170 with Tatian's 
Syrian Diatessaron, which has been recently recovered in an 
Arabic translation (1888). The first biographies of Christ were 
ascetic or poetic, and largely legendary, for edification. 

The critical period was opened by the attacks of infidels in the 
last century (Reimarus and others), who revived the Jewish he 
of the resurrection fraud (Matt. 28 : 11-15). They occasioned 
the noble apologetic works of Hess (1774, 8th ed. 1823), Herder 
(1796), and Reinhard {Der Plan Jesu, 1781, 5th ed. 1830). 

A most powerful impulse to the modern literature on the 
subject was given by the rationalistic theory of Paulus of Hei- 
delberg (1828), which explains away the miracles of Christ as 
real but natural events and skillful medical cures ; next by the 
mythical theory of D. F. Strauss (1835), which dissolves them 
into innocent poems of the religious imagination ; and thirty 



LITERATURE ON THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 271 

years later by the legendary theory of E. Renan (1863), which 
lowers them to the level of incredible legends of mediaeval 
hagiology, or an interesting romance, and, in the case of the 
resnrreetion of Lazarus, even resorts to the exploded hypoth- 
esis of imposture. Paulus, Strauss, and Renan agree only in 
their opposition to the supernatural, but otherwise refute each 
other. Indeed, it is a merit of Strauss that he has annihilated 
the theory of Paulus. Strauss wrote for German scholars, 
Renan for French novel-readers. Both combined genius and 
learning, and were masters of style* 

Their works created a great sensation and called forth a vast 
number of apologetic replies ; these again were followed by in- 
dependent books of more or less permanent value. 

The chief biographies of Christ : * Hase (Leben Jesu, 1829, 
5th ed. 1865, very valuable for its literature ; and his Geschichte 
Jesu, 1875) ; Schleiermacher (1832, posthumously published, 
1864, very unsatisfactory) ; Strauss (1835, 4th ed. 1840, 2 vols. ; 
popular ed. 1864, 5th ed. 1889) ; * Neander (1837, 7th ed. 1873) ; 

* Lange (1844-47, 3 vols.) ; Van Oosterzee (Dutch, 1855-71, 
3 vols.) ; Ebrard (1868) ; Ewald (1867) ; Renan (1863, in many 
editions and translations) ; * Pressense (1865, 7th ed. 1884) ; 
*Kebi (1867-72, 3 vols.); * Andrews (1863, revised 1891, 
unpretending, but very valuable in chronology and topology) ; 

* Farrar (1874, in many edd.) ; Geikte (1878, several edd.) ; 

* Weiss (1882, 3d ed. 1888, Engl. trsl. in 3 vols.) ; * Edersheim 
(1884, 2 vols.); Stalker (1884); *Beyschlag (1885, 2d ed. 
1888, 2 vols.) ; Uhlhorn (Las Leben Jesu in semen neueren 
Darstellungm, 4th ed. 1892; a review of the works of Renan, 
Strauss, Keim, DeLff, Weiss, Beyschlag). 

On the moral character of Christ, as an evidence of his divin- 
ity, Ullmann: The Sinlessness of Jesus (1828, 7th ed. 1864, 
Engl. trsl. 1870) ; Bushnell : The Character of Jesus Forbid- 
ding His Classification with Men (1861) ; Seeley : JEcce Homo 
(1864, several editions and translations) ; Schaff : The Person 
of Christ (1865, 12th ed. 1882, in several languages). 

* It is noteworthy that these writers outlived the false theories which 
they represent. Strauss sank from an ideal Hegelian pantheism to a Dar- 
winian materialism. Both he and Renan were pessimists, and lost, with 
their faith in Christ, all faith in immortality. They substituted a gospel 
of death for the gospel of resurrection. Strauss declared that the hereafter 
(dan Jenseits) is the last enemy to be conquered by scientific criticism, and 
called the resurrection of our Saviour " the great world-humbug " ; he died 



272 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

CHAPTER CLXXIIL 

THE APOSTOLIC AGE. 

The period of the founding of Christianity by the inspired 
Apostles begins with the Day of Pentecost, A. D. 30, the birth- 
day of the Christian Church, and ends with the death of St. 
John, about A. D. 100. It may be subdivided into three sec- 
tions : 

1. The founding of Christianity among the Jews, or the 
Jewish Christian Church, under the lead of St. Peter and with 
Jerusalem as its centre. 

2. The founding of Christianity among the Greeks and Ro- 
mans, or the Gentile Christian Church, under the lead of St. Paul, 
with Antioch as the starting-point and Rome as the termina- 
tion and the place of the martyrdom of Peter and Paul. 

3. The amalgamation and consolidation of Jewish and Gen- 
tile Christianity into one community, under the presiding genius 
of St. John, the apostle of love, who survived all the other 
apostles and continued at the head of the churches of Asia 
Minor till the reign of Trajan. 

The Apostolic Age differs from all subsequent periods of the 
Church by the supernatural outfit of the Apostles, and the 
authoritative character of their writings, by which the Church 
must always be guided and, if necessary, reformed and recon- 
structed. The Apostolic Church has a prophetical and typical 
import ; it anticipates, in its three stages of progress and types 
of doctrine, the whole subsequent development of Christianity. 
As the Jewish Church is a type of the Christian Church, so the 
Apostolic Church prefigures and foreshadows the history of 
Catholicism, Protestantism, and the Church of the future till 
the second Advent of Christ, who will reconcile all antagonisms 
and harmonize all discordant creeds. 

like a Stoic, and was buried without any religious ceremony (1874). Renan, 
who was brought up for the priesthood, but ended in agnosticism, said to 
his wife a few hours before his death (October 2, 1892) : "Be calm and re- 
signed. We undergo the laws of that nature whereof we are a manifesta- 
tion. We perish ; we disappear ; but heaven and earth remain, and the 
march of time goes on forever." He was buried in the Pantheon with 
Voltaire and Rousseau. 



PATROLOGY AND PATRISTIC. 273 

Literature : Histories of the Apostolic Age by * Neander (1832, 5th 
ed. 1862 ; trsl.) ; Thiersch (1852, 3d ed. 1879) ; Ewald (1858, 3d ed. 1868) ; 
Renan (Les Apotres, 1866 ; St. Paul, 1869 ; L'Antechrist, 1873) ; Lange 
(1854) ; * Lechler (3d ed. revised, 1857) ; G. P. Fisher (The Beginnings of 
Christianity, 1877) ; * Weizsacker (1886, 2d ed. 1892) ; Pfleiderer (Das 
Urchristenthum, 1887) ; Schaff (separate History of the Apostolic Church, in 
German, 1851 and 1854 ; in English, 1853, etc. ; also, as a new work, the 
first vol. of his general Church History, third revis. 1889) ; McGiffert (in 
preparation). 

Special works on Paul: Pierson (Annales Paul., 1688); Paley (Horw 
Paulince, 1790); *Baur (1845, 2d ed. 1867, 2 vols.); * Contbeare and 
Howson (1853 and later edd.) ; * Lewin (1875) ; * Farrar (1879, 2 vols.) ; 
Pfleiderer (1885); Sabbatier (1887); *G. R. Stevens (1892). 

The recent critical reconstruction of the history of the Apostolic Age* 
is represented by two schools, the one headed by Neander in Germany 
and Lightfoot in England, the other by Baur of Tubingen and Renan of 
France. See a resume in Schaff's Church History, Vol. I., pp. 207-217 and 
853-863 (third revision, 1889) ; and Lightfoot's Dissertations on the Apostolic 
Age, 1892. 

CHAPTER CLXXIV. 

PATROLOGY AND PATRISTIC. 

(Altchristliche Literatur-Geschichte.) 

I. Definition. Patrology, or Patristic, is a biographical and 
literary account of the Christian Fathers and ecclesiastical 
writers during the Grseco-Roman age of Christianity, i. e., dur- 
ing the first six or seven centuries, before the separation of 
the Eastern and Western Churches. It is a history of ancient 
Christian literature. It includes also an exposition of the doc- 
trinal and ethical opinions of the Fathers. It begins with the 
Apostolic Fathers, so called, at the close of the first century, and 
ends with Gregory I. (d. 604) in the West, and with John of 
Damascus (d. about 750) in the East. 

Sometimes a distinction is made between Patristic and 
Patrology ; in this case the former (patristica doctrina or theolo- 
gia) is confined to the theological and doctrinal, the latter to the 
biographical and literary part. But they cannot be separated. 

II. Division. Patristic embraces : 

1. The Apostolic Fathers, i. e., the immediate disciples of 
the Apostles, who flourished at the end of the first and the 
beginning of the second century and present a faint echo of 
the age of inspiration. Clement of Rome, Polycarp, Ignatius 



274 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

(and pseudo-Ignatius), Barnabas, Papias, Hernias, the anon- 
ymous author of the beautiful Epistle to Diognetus, and the 
unknown writer of The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles. 

2. The ante-Nicene Fathers, or the apologists and theolo- 
gians of the second and third centuries, who were chiefly en- 
gaged in the defense of Christianity against Jews and Gentiles 
and the refutation of the Ebionite and Gnostic heresies. 

(a) Greek Church: Aristides (under Hadrian), Justin Mar- 
tyr (d. 166), Irenaeus (d. 202), Hippolytus (d. 236), Clement of 
Alexandria (d. 220), Origen (d. 254), Methodius (d. 311), and 
others of less importance. Of these, Irenaeus is the soundest 
divine, Origen the greatest thinker and scholar. 

(b) Latin Church : Tertullian (d. about 220), Cyprian (d. 258), 
Minutius Felix, Arnobius. Tertullian is the most vigorous and 
independent thinker, Cyprian the most churchly character. 

3. The Nicene Fathers of the fourth century, who chiefly 
developed and defended the doctrines of the Trinity and the 
Incarnation in the Arian conflict from 325 to 381. 

(a) Greek Church : Eusebius (the historian, d. 340), Athana- 
sius ("the father of orthodoxy," d. 373), Gregory Nazianzen 
("the theologian," d. 391), Gregory of Nyssa (d. 395), Basil the 
Great (d. 379), Cyril of Jerusalem (d. 386), Chrysostom (the 
prince of pulpit orators, d. 407), Epiphanius (the zealot for 
orthodoxy, d. 403). 

(b) Latin Church : Hilary of Poictiers (the "Athanasius of 
the West," d. 368), Ambrose of Milan (d. 397). 

4. The post-Nicene Fathers, who developed the orthodox 
christology and the fundamental doctrines of Christian an- 
thropology and soteriology. 

(a) Greek Church : Cyril of Alexandria (d. 444), Theodoret 
(d. 458), John of Damascus (d. 754). 

(b) Latin Church : Jerome (d. 419), Augustin (d. 430), Leo 
the Great (d. 604), Gregory the Great (d. 604). 

III. Value. The Fathers laid the foundations for theological 
literature. They were the first commentators, the first apolo- 
gists, the first controversialists, the first homilists. Their posi- 
tion near the source of Christianity gives them a special im- 
portance as early witnesses. But they are far inferior to the 
apostolic grandfathers, and must be judged by the Scriptures, 
like all other divines. The New Testament alone is worth 
more than all the patristic and scholastic works put together. 



PATBOLOGY AND PATRISTIC. 275 

To read all the Fathers is a task which can only be expected 
from the professional historian, and wonld be an idle waste of 
time for the ordinary stndent. Bnt some knowledge of them 
is indispensable. Every student ought to read select works, 
such as the Didache, the Epistle of Clement to the Corin- 
thians, the Epistle of Polycarp, the Epistles of Ignatius, the 
Epistle to Diognetus, the Apologies of Justin Martyr ; the Apol- 
ogeticus of Tertullian, Cyprian's Unity of the Church, Origen 
Against Celsus, Eusebius's Church History, Augustin's Confes- 
sions and his City of God, and some Homilies of Chrysostom. 

Notes. 

1. The title Church Father is given to those divines of the early ages 
who excelled in learning, judgment, piety, and orthodoxy; but in a 
wider sense it is also extended to other ecclesiastical writers of merit 
and distinction. The line of the Greek Fathers is closed with John of 
Damascus (d. 754), the line of the Latin usually with Gregory I. (d. 604) ; 
but the latter is sometimes extended so as to embrace the most distin- 
guished schoolmen and mystics, as St. Anselm, St. Thomas Aquinas, St. 
Bernard, and St. Bonaventura. 

2. The Roman Church makes a distinction between pater ecclesice, 
doctor ecclesice, and auctor ecclesiasticus. This distinction is more 
or less arbitrary, and made without regard to literary merit, in the interest 
of Roman orthodoxy. 

(a) Patres ecclesi^e are all ancient teachers who combine antiquitas, 
doctrina ortJwdoxa, sanctitas vitce, and approbatio ecclesice (which may be 
expressed, or silent). These requisites, however, are only imperfectly 
combined even in the most eminent of the Fathers. Some excel in learning 
(Origen, Jerome) ; some in piety (Polycarp) ; some in orthodoxy (Irenseus, 
Athanasius,LeoI.) ; some in genius, vigor, and depth (Tertullian, Augustin) ; 
some in eloquence (Chrysostom) ; but none could stand the test of Roman 
orthodoxy of the Tridentine, still less of the Vatican or Ultramontane 
stamp, and many of them would have to be condemned as heretics. This 
is especially the case with the Fathers of the ante-Nicene age. See Schaff's 
Church History, Vol. II., pp. 625 sqq. 

(&) Doctores ecclesle are the most authoritative of the Church Fathers, 
who in addition to the above requisites excel in learning (eminens eruditio) 
and have the express approbation of the Church (expressa ecclesice declaratio). 
See the bull of Benedict XIV., 1754 : " Militantis ecclesice." 

Greek Church doctors : Athanasius, Basil the Great, Gregory Nazianzen, 
Chrysostom, Cyril of Alexandria, John of Damascus. Latin Church doc- 
tors : Ambrose, Augustin, Jerome, Leo the Great, Gregory the Great, also 
Hilary of Poictiers, Anselm, Bernard of Clairvaux, Thomas Aquinas, Bona- 
ventura, to whom have been added more recently Alfonso da Liguori 
(1871), and Francis of Sales (1877). 

(c) Auctores ecclesiastic! : those who are less important for didactic 
theology, or who held questionable or heterodox opinions, as Tertullian, 



276 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC 

Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Eusebius, Arnobius, Lactantius, Theodoret. 
Among these are some of the most learned and useful of the Fathers, 
especially Tertullian, Origen, and Eusebius. 



CHAPTER CLXXV. 

PATRISTIC LITERATURE. 

The patristic literature is exceedingly rich. It began with St. Jerome's 
Catalogue of Illustrious Men (JDe Viris Illustrious), which comprises, in 135 
numbers, brief notices of the biblical and ecclesiastical authors from St. 
Peter down to Jerome, and was completed in 393. It was continued by 
Gennadius about 490. * 

Patristic learning has been cultivated mostly by Eoman Catholic and 
Anglican scholars during the seventeenth century, in the apologetic or 
polemic interest of using the Fathers as witnesses for or against disputed 
doctrines and institutions. 

The principal older writers on Patristic are : 

1. Roman Catholics : Bellarmin (1613), * Tillemont (1693), Dupin 
/1715), Ceillier (1763), Lumper (1799), Mohler (1840), Fessler (1852). 

2. Protestants : Suicer (1682), Cave (1698), Oudin (1722), * Fabricius 
(the most learned and most useful of bibliographers, d. 1736), J. G. Walch 
(1770), Schonemann (1792). 

Recent Discoveries. 

Important discoveries have been made since about 1850 in biblical and 
ecclesiastical literature and antiquities, which supersede in large part older 
works and require a reconstruction and completion of the Patristic history 
of ante-Nicene Christianity. 

The Codex Sinaiticus of the Greek Bible, with the Greek Barnabas and 
the Greek Hermas, found by Prof. Tischendorf on Mt. Sinai, 1859, and 
published 1863. In connection with this discovery may be mentioned the 
photographic facsimile edition of the Codex Vaticanus at Rome, 1889 
(which was imperfectly known before). These two oldest known uncial 
manuscripts are the chief sources of the latest critical editions of the 
Greek Testament by Tischendorf, Tregelles, Westcott and Hort, and of the 
Anglo-American Revision of 1881. 

The Pliilosophumena of Hippolytus of Rome, edited by Duneker and 
Schneidewin, 1859. They shed much light on ancient heresies and the 
commotions in the Roman Church at the beginning of the third century. 

The Commentary of Hippolytus on Daniel has been made better known 
to us by the fourth book, which was discovered and first published by 
Prof. Georgiades at Athens, in 1885, and again by J. H. Kennedy in 1888, 
and last by Prof. Ed. Bratke, in Bonn, in 1891, with introduction and 
notes. Hippolytus was a millennarian, like most of the Ante-Nicene 
Fathers, but at the close he warns against fanatical expectations and 

* Both are translated by E. C. Richardson in Schaff and Wace's Library 
ofNicene and Post-Nieene Fathers, Vol. III., pp. 353-402 (1892). 



PATRISTIC LITERATURE. 277 

chronological calculations of a near approach of the millennium, since 
Christ "would not come before the close of the sixth millennium of the 
world. In this connection he notices incidentally the date of the nativity 
and crucifixion. He says (in Bratke's edition, p. 19) : " The first advent 
of the Lord in the flesh by his birth in Bethlehem took place on the 25th 
of December, on a Wednesday, in the 42d year of Augustus, or 5500, 
dating from Adam. He suffered in his 33d year, on the 25th of March, 
on a Friday, in the 18th year of Tiberius, under the consuls Eufus and 
Rubellius." Consequently he put off the second advent to the year 500 
after Christ's birth, i.e., to A. M. 6000, when the seventh millennium, or 
the great world's Sabbath (Eev. 20 : 1-6) will begin. 

The Tenth Book of the Pseudo-Clementine Homilies, first published by 
Dressel, 1853. It supplements our knowledge of a curious type of distorted 
Christianity in the post-apostolic age, and furnishes, by an undoubted 
quotation, a valuable contribution to the solution of the Johannean 
problem. 

The Greek Hernias from Mt. Athos (the Codex Lipsiensis), published 
by Anger and Tischendorf, 1856. 

A new and complete Greek manuscript of the First Epistle of the Roman 
Clement, with several important new chapters, and the oldest written Chris- 
tian prayer (about one-tenth of the whole). It was found in the Constan- 
tinopolitan or Hierosolymitan Codex belonging to the library of the Greek 
patriarch of Jerusalem (whose chief residence is at Constantinople) by 
Bryennios, 1873, and first published by him in 1875. The Second (falsely 
so called) Epistle of Clemext in its complete form (twenty chapters in- 
stead of twelve), found by the same scholar, in the same Codex. It is a 
post-Clementine homily, and gives us the first post-apostolic sermon. 

A new Greek text of the Epistle of Barnabas in the same Codex, which 
has since been transferred to Jerusalem. 

A Syriac Version of Clemext in the library of Jules Mohl, now at Cam- 
bridge (1876). 

The DidacJie, or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, the most interesting 
and valuable of the post-apostolic writings, by an unknown author, prob- 
ably of Syria, at the end of the first or the beginning of the second cen- 
tury, discovered by Bryennios in 1873, and first published in 1884. It cre- 
ated an unusual sensation, and called forth a small library of books (see 
the literature in Schaff's edition, pp. 140 sqq.). 

Tatiax's Diatessaron (the first Harmony of the Gospels), in an Arabic 
Version, discovered and published by Ciasca, 1888. Fragments of it, in an 
Armenian Version, with Ephraem's Commentary on it, had been previously 
discovered and published in Latin by Mosinger, 1878. 

A Syriac translation of the Apology of Aristides, found at Mt. Sinai, by 
J. R. Harris, 1889. This Apology has been identified with the Greek text 
in The Lives of Barlaam and Josaphat (edited by J. A. Robinson, 1891). 

Fragments of the apocryphal Gospel and Apocalypse of Peter, discovered 
in Upper Egypt, 1887, published by Bouriant, Paris, 1892, and by Harnack, 
with notes, Leipzig, 1893. Facsimile ed. by O. v. Gebhardt, 1893. 

A palimpsest of a Syriac translation of the Gospels, discovered by Mrs. 
A. S. Lewis in the Convent of St. Catherine on Mt. Sinai, February, 1892. 



278 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

The modern researches in the Eoman Catacombs by Cavalier de Rossi, 
Garrucci, Parker, Roller, and Lanctani are important for a knowl- 
edge of the humble life and pious death of the ancient Christians in the 
times of persecution, and for the beginnings of Christian art. 

For new discoveries or critical discussions of old Christian literature, 
see Oscar von Gebhardt and Adolf Harnack : Texte und Untersuclmngen 
zur Geschichte der Altchristlichen Literatur. Leipzig, 1882 sqq. 

Sources — the Works op the Fathers. 

The Benedictine editions of the Fathers, repeatedly published in Paris 
and Venice, are the best so far as they go, but need supplementing and 
correcting from more recent researches and discoveries. 

Abbe Migne (1800-75) : Patrologiw Cursus Completus, etc. Petit Mon- 
trouge (near Paris), 1844—66, new ed. since 1878. The cheapest and most 
complete, but not the most critical, patristic library, reaching down to 
the thirteenth century, the Latin in 222 vols., the Greek in 167 vols., 
reprinted from the Benedictine and other good editions, with Prolegom- 
ena, Vitas, Dissertations, Supplements, etc. Some of the plates were con- 
sumed by fire in 1868, but have been replaced. To be used with caution. 
The work is continued by Abbe" Horoy and is to be brought down to the 
Council of Trent, in the Medii JEvi Bibliotheca Patristica, ab anno 1216 ad 
Cone. Trid., Paris, 1879 sqq. But this continuation belongs to mediaeval 
Church history. 

Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum, published by the Imperial 
Academy of Vienna and edited by a number of scholars, Vienna, 1866 
sqq. More critical than Migne but not complete. 

Separate Editions of the Apostolic Fathers. 

J. B. Lightfoot (late Lord Bishop of Durham, and the best patristic 
scholar in the Church of England) : The Apostolic Fathers. Edited and 
completed by J. E. Harmer, London and New York (Macmillan & Co.), 
1891. The Greek text with English translations and brief introductions, 
in 568 pp. It includes the Didache, without which no edition of the Apos- 
tolic Fathers, hereafter, can be complete. The most convenient edition 
for students. — Also the Editio minor of O. von Gebhardt, Harnack and 
Zahn. 

Larger editions, with notes, by Bp. Hefele (R. Cath.), continued by 
Funk (5th ed. 1878-81, 2 vols.); O. von Gebhardt, Harnack and 
Zahn (2d ed. 1878, 3 vols.); Jacobson (2 vols.); and especially the 
monumental editions of the three chief Apostolic Fathers, by Bp. Light- 
foot, namely: St. Clement of Borne (1869, 2d ed. 1890, 2 vols.); St. Igna- 
tius and St. Poly carp (1885, 2d ed. 1891, 3 vols., a complete Corpus Igna- 
tianum). 

Separate editions of The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles (briefly called 
Tlie Didache), by Bryennios (Greek, Constantinople, 1884) ; Harnack (Ger- 
man, Leipzig, 1884) ; Schaff (English, New York, 1885 ; 3d ed. revised, 
1889) ; and Jacquier (French, Lyons, 1892). A facsimile of the text was 
published by J. Rendel Harris at Baltimore (Johns Hopkins Univer- 
sity). 1887. 



PATRISTIC LITERATURE. 279 

The works of the Apologists have been edited by Otto (3d ed. 1876, 9 
vols.) ; a new edition by O. von Gebhardt and E. Schwartz is in course 
of preparation (Leipzig, 1888 sqq.). 

English Translations of the Fathers. 

The Oxford Library of the Fathers of the Holy Catholic Church, anterior 
to the Division of the East and West. Translated by Members of the Eng- 
lish Church, Oxford (1837 sqq., 48 vols.). Edited by Drs. Pusey, Newman, 
Keble, and Charles Marriott (chiefly by Pusey and Marriott) in the 
interest of the Tractarian or Anglo-Catholic School. Unfinished. 

The Ante-Nicene Christian Library, edited by Roberts and Donaldson 
(Edinburgh, 1866-72, 24 vols.) ; republished, with additions, by the Chris- 
tian Literature Co., under the editorship of Bishop A. Cleveland Coxe 
(New York, 1886, 8 vols.). 

A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. In two series, 
published by the Christian Literature Co., New York and Oxford, 1886 sqq. 
The first series, edited by Philip Schaff, embraces the works of Augustin 
in 8 vols., and of Chrysostom in 6 vols. The second series, edited by Philip 
Schaff and Henry Wace, now in course of publication, will embrace in 
13 or 14 vols, the works of the other Fathers from Eusebius to John of 
Damascus (4 vols, were published till 1892, embracing, I., Eusebius; II., 
Socrates and Sozomenus; III., Theodoret, Jerome, and Rufinus; and IV., 
Athanasius). 

Patristic Manuals. 

Alzog (R. Cath., d. 1878) : Grundriss der Patrologie oder der alter en 
christl. Liter drgeschichte (Freiburg, 1866 ; 4th ed. 1888). 

Nirschl (R. Cath.): Lehrbuch der Patrologie und Patristih (Mainz, 
1881-85, 3 vols.)- 

*Adolf Harnack (aided by Preuschen) : Geschichte der Altchristlichen 
Litteratur bis Eusebius (1st Part, Leipzig, 1893, pp. 1020). 

Patristic Biographies. 

Wm. Smith and Henry Wace (Anglicans) : A Dictionary of Christian 
Biography, Literature, Sects and Doctrines during the first eight centuries 
(London, 1877-87, 4 vols.). By far the best patristic biographical diction- 
ary in the English or any other language. A noble monument of the learn- 
ing of the Church of England. Indispensable to scholars. 

Frederic W. Farrar (Archdeacon, Evangelical Broad-Church) : Lives 
of the Fathers. Sketches of Church History in Biographies (London and New 
York, 1889, 2 vols.). 

Tlie Fathers for English Readers. A series of popular biographies in 
small volumes, published by the "Society for Promoting Christian Knowl- 
edge," London and New York, 1879. 

Philip Schaff : St. Chrysostom and St. Augustin (New York, 1891). 



280 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 



CHAPTER CLXXVI. 

CHRISTIAN ARCHAEOLOGY. 

(Comp. pp. 140 sqq.) 

Christian Archaeology, or Ecclesiastical Antiquities, embraces 
an account (fuller than Church History can give) of the insti- 
tutions, creeds, liturgies, laws, canons, rites, and ceremonies of 
the ancient undivided Church of the East and the West. It is 
usually confined to the first six centuries, but sometimes carried 
down to the age of Charlemagne or even later. 

Christian or Ecclesiastical Archaeology occupies the same 
position and answers the same purpose in Church History as 
Biblical or Jewish Archaeology does in exegetical literature. 
Works of this sort may also be arranged in alphabetical order 
for more convenient reference. 

Literature. 

* Joseph Bingham (Anglican, 1668-1723) : Origines Ecclesiastics, or Tlie 
Antiquities of the Christian Church (new ed. by Pitman, London, 1840, 
7 vols.). Still very valuable. 

Binterim (R. Cath.) : Denkivilrdigkeiten der cliristl.-kathol. Kirche aus 
der ersten, mittleren und letzten Zeit (Mainz, 1825 sqq., 7 vols ; 2d ed. 
1830-40). 

K. Ch. F. Siegel : Handbuch der chrisilich-kirchlichen Alterthumer in al- 
phabetischer Ordnung (Leipzig, 1835-38, 4 Bande). 

J. A. Martigny (R. Cath.) : Dictionnaire des antiquites chretiennes, etc. 
(Paris, 1848 ; new ed. 1877). With illustrations. 

* Wm. Smith and S. Cheetham : Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, 
being a continuation of the Dictionary of the Bible (London, 1875-80, 2 vols.). 

F. X. Kraus (R. Cath.) : Real-Encyklopadie der christlichen Alterthumer. 
Unter Mitwirkung mehrerer Fachgenossen. With illustrations, mostly taken 
from Martigny (Freiburg, 1882-86, 2 vols.). 

* Charles W. Bennett (Methodist) : Christian Archaeology. With an 
introductory notice by Dr. Piper (New York, 1888). 

CHAPTER CLXXVIL 

THE REFORMATION. 

The Reformation of the sixteenth century is, next to the 
Apostolic Age, by far the most important and interesting part 
of Church History. It was a revival of primitive Christianity, 
and an assertion of the freedom and purity of the gospel 



THE REFORMATION. 281 

against the tyranny of ecclesiastical tradition and corruption. 
It is the turning-point from the Middle Ages to modern times. 
It is the formative period of the Evangelical denominations, 
when the principles and institutions of Protestantism were 
elaborated in opposition to the papacy. 

The Reformation extends, on the Continent, from A.D. 1517 
to the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which secured the legal 
existence of the Lutheran and Reformed Churches in the Ger- 
man Empire. In England, it extends to the Westminster As- 
sembly of 1648, or rather to the Toleration Act in 1689, which 
gave legal existence to orthodox Dissenters. 

The sixteenth century is also the time of the papal counter- 
Reformation under the lead of Jesuitism and the Council of 
Trent. It was then that mediaeval Catholicism was consoli- 
dated and contracted into Romanism in opposition to the evan- 
gelical doctrines of the Reformers. In the further course of 
its development, it eliminated also Jansenism, Grallicanism, and 
other liberal tendencies, and culminated in the Vatican decree 
of an absolute and infallible papacy. Hence modern ultramon- 
tane Romanism, while far better than at the time of the Refor- 
mation, at least in Protestant countries and under the stimulus 
of Protestant energy, is in principle more opposed to Protest- 
antism than ever before. 

Since the Reformation the Christianity of Europe runs in 
two distinct channels : the Protestant, which represents liberty 
and progress, and the Roman Catholic, which represents author- 
ity and conservatism. This separation is broader and deeper 
than the separation of the Latin from the Greek Church in the 
ninth century. 

The schism of the sixteenth century became the fruitful 
mother of other divisions. At first the Reformation resulted 
in three orthodox evangelical Churches : the Lutheran, the Re- 
formed (Calvinistic), and the Anglican ; while the more radical 
sects of the Anabaptists, Socinians, etc., were persecuted by 
Protestants and Romanists alike. After the long struggle be- 
tween Puritanism and Prelacy in England, which was a second 
Reformation, and after the expulsion of the semi-popish dynasty 
of the Stuarts through the peaceful Revolution of 1688, the Tol- 
eration Act of May 24, 1689, gave partial relief to the Dissenters 
or Nonconformists and allowed them to form independent and 
self-governing church organizations. 



282 THEOLOGICAL PROPAEDEUTIC. 

From that time English Church History is divided into sev- 
eral denominational channels : Episcopalians, Presbyterians, 
Congregationalists, Baptists, Quakers ; to whom were after- 
wards added Methodists, Unitarians, Universalists, and others. 
The principle of toleration was at first very limited, and denied 
altogether to Romanists and Socinians ; but it gradually devel- 
oped into the principle of religious freedom and legal equality, 
which is making steady progress in Europe, and was fully car- 
ried out in the United States. Toleration is a grant of the 
government, and implies disapproval or censure ; liberty is a 
gift of God, and an inalienable right of every man. Turkey 
and Russia are tolerant towards religions which they despise, 
but cannot exterminate and must tolerate as a nuisance. Eng- 
land and America respect and protect the freedom of every 
man to worship Grod according to the dictates of his conscience. 
This is the legitimate result of the Reformation, though it took 
three centuries to bring it about* 

The greal counter-movements of Romanism and Protest- 
antism, and the rival movements of Protestant denominations 
are still in progress, with no apparent approach to a reconcilia- 
tion, but with a multiplication of agencies for the conversion of 
the whole world to Christ. Providence has great surprises in 
store for the future. We may hope for a higher, deeper, and 
broader reformation, and a new pentecostal effusion of the holy 
spirit of wisdom and love, which will unite what the sin and 
folly of man have divided. Christ's prophecy of one flock 
under one shepherd must and will be fulfilled in God's own 
good time. 

Literature. 

I. Protestant Works on the Reformation. 

The chief sources are the works of the Reformers : Luther, Melanch- 

THON, BUCER, ZWINGLI, BULLINGER, CALVIN, BEZA, CRANMER, KNOX. 

G-ieseler, in his Church History (Vols. IV. and V. of the English transla- 
tion) gives a good sketch of the Reformation, with extracts from the sources. 

K. R. Hagenbach (d. 1874) : Gesehichte der Reformation, vorziiglich in 
Deutschland und der Schweiz (5th ed. edited by Nippold, 1887). Part of his 
General Church History. English translation by Miss Eveline Moore (Edin- 
burgh, 1878, 2 vols.). 

* Tolerance is a virtue and an element of Christian charity, but tolera- 
tion is an intolerable insult to the divine right of religious freedom. Lord 
Stanhope (in a speech in the House of Lords in 1827, on the bill for the 
repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts) said : "The time was when tol- 
eration was craved by Dissenters as a boon ; it is now demanded as a 
right; but a time will come when it will be spurned as an insult." 



THE REFORMATION. 283 

Merle D'Aubigne' (d. 1872) : Histoire de la reformation du 16me siecle 
(Paris, 1835-53, 5 vols.; 4th ed. 1861 sqq.). Extends to 1531. By the 
same : Histoire de la reformation en Europe au temps du Calvin (Paris, 
1863-78, 8 vols., including a posthumous volume). Extends to 1542. 
Translated into German by Runkel (Stuttgart, 1848 sqq.). Several English 
editions (some of them mutilated), the best published by Longmans, 
Green & Co. (London, 1865 sqq.) and republished by Robert Carter & Bros. 
(New York, 1870-79), the first work in 5, the second in 8 vols. The first 
division of Merle's History of the Reformation, owing to its evangelical fer- 
vor, intense Protestantism, and dramatic eloquence, has had an enormous 
circulation in England and America by means of the Tract Societies and 
private publishers. 

Leopold von Rankjs (d. 1886) : Deutsche Gescliiclite im Zeitalter der 
Reformation (6th ed. Leipzig, 1881, 6 vols.). A standard work from the 
standpoint of secular history. English translation in part. 

L. Hausser (d. 1867) : Gescliiclite des Zeitalters der Reformation, 1517- 
1648. Edited by Oncken (Berlin, 1868, 867 pp.). Abridged English trans- 
lation by Mrs. Sturge (New York, 1874). 

Geo. P. Fisher (Prof, of Church History in Yale College) : Tlie Ref- 
ormation (New York, 1873 ; also in 1891). A comprehensive work, 
clear, calm, judicial, with a useful bibliographical Appendix (pp. 567- 
591). 

Georg Weber: Das Zeitalter der Reformation (new ed., Leipzig, 1886; 
the 10th vol. of his Weltgescliiclite) . 

Charles Beard (Unitarian, d. 1888) : The Reformation in its Relation to 
Modern Tliought and Knowledge, Hibbert Lectures (London, 1883 ; 2d ed. 
1885). Liberal and able. German translation by F. Halverscheid (Berlin, 
1884). 

G. Egelhaaf : Deutsche Gescliiclite im Zeitalter der Reformation (Halle, 
1885). In the spirit of Ranke, with polemical reference to Janssen ; it ex- 
tends from 1517 to the Peace of Augsburg, 1555 (450 pp.). 

Fr. von Bezold : Gescliiclite der deutschen Reformation (Berlin, 1886). 

L. Keller : Die Reformation und die alteren Reformparteien (Leipzig, 
1885). In sympathy with the Waldenses and Anabaptists. 

Philip Schapf: History of the Christian Church; Vol. VI., the German 
Reformation (New York and Edinb., 1889) ; Vol. VII., the Swiss Reforma- 
tion (1892). Full lists of the Reformation literature in Vol. VI., pp. 89-97 
and 99-105; Vol. VII., 12-20 and 223-232. 

Biographies of the Reformers : 

Leben und ausgewdhlte Schriften der Vdter und Begriinder der luther. 
Kir die, herausgeg. von J. Hartmann u. A., eingeleitet von K. J. Nitzsch 
(Elberfeld, 1861-83, 10 vols., including Kostlin's Luther, which was pub- 
lished last). 

Leben und ausgewdhlte Schriften der Vdter und Begriinder der reformirten 
Kirche, herausgeg. von J. W. Baum, R. Christoffel, K. R. Hagenbach, 
und A., eingeleitet von K. R. Hageiibach (Elberfeld, 1857-63, 10 vols.). 

• The best biographies of Luther by Julius Kostlin (large ed. in 2 vols., 
1883, small ed. in 1 vol., with illustrations ; English translation, 1883) ; of 
Zwingli by Morikofer (1869, 2 vols.) ; of Calvin by P. Henry (1835-44, 3 
vols.) ; Stahelin (1863, 2 vols.) and Kampschulte (1872, unfinished) ; of 



284 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Cranmer by Strype (Memorials by Cranmer, new ed. 1840) ; of Knox by 
Thos. McCrie (1841) and Wm. Taylor (1885). 

II. Roman Catholic Works on the Protestant Reformation. 

Ignatius Dollinger (Prof, of Church History in Munich, since 1870 
Old Catholic, d. 1891) : Die Reformation, Hire innere Entwicklung mid Hire 
Wirkung im Umfange des Luther. Bekenntnisses (Regensburg, 1846-48, 3 
vols. ; 2d ed. 1853). A learned collection of testimonies against the Ref- 
ormation and its effects from contemporary apostates, humanists, and the 
Reformers themselves (Luther and Melanchthon), and those of their fol- 
lowers who complain bitterly of the decay of morals and the dissensions 
in the Lutheran Church. The author has, nevertheless, after he seceded 
from the Roman communion, passed a striking judgment in favor of 
Luther's greatness (quoted in Schaff's Church History, VI. 742). 

Joh. Janssen (d. 1892) : Geschichte des deutschen Volkes seit dem Aus- 
gang des Hittelalters (Freiburg i. B. 1876-88, 6 vols.), down to the begin- 
ning of the Thirty Years' War, 1618. This masterpiece of ultramontane 
historiography is a counterpart of Ranke's work, and is written with 
great learning and ability from a variety of sources (especially the archives 
of Frankfurt, Mainz, Trier, Zurich, and the Vatican). It soon passed 
through twelve editions, and called out able defences of the Reformation 
by Kawerau, Kostlin, Lenz, Schweizer, Ebrard, Baumgarten, and others, 
to whom Janssen calmly replied in An meine Kritiker (Freiburg i. B., 
tenth thousand, 1883, 227 pp.), and Ein zweites Wort an meine Kritiker 
(Freiburg i. B., twelfth thousand, 1883, 144 pp.). He disclaims all "ten- 
dency," and professes to aim only at the historical truth. Admitted, but 
his standpoint is false, because he views the main current of modern 
history as an apostasy and failure ; while it is an onward and progressive 
movement of Christianity under the guidance of Divine Providence and 
the ever-present spirit of its Founder. He reads history through the mirror 
of Vatican Romanism. Pope Leo XIII. has praised Janssen as " a light 
of historic science and a man of profound learning." 

III. The Papal Counter-Reformation. 

The chief sources are the polemical writings of Eck, CocHLiEUS, Emser, 
Pighius ; the Regesta of Leo X., ed. by Hergenrother ; the Monumenta Re- 
form. Lutherans (1821-25), ed. from the papal archives by Balan, 1884 ; 
and the Acts of the Council of Trent, collected by Le Plat (Monumenta ad 
Hist. Cone. Trid., 1781-87, 7 vols.). 

L. v. Ranke (Prot. ) : Die romischen Pdpste in den letzten vier Jahrhun- 
derten (1834; 8th ed. Leipzig, 1885, 3 vols.). A standard work on the 
revival of the papacy among the Romanic nations from the Protestant 
standpoint. 

Mandell Creighton (Anglican) : History of the Papacy during the 
Period of the Reformation (London, 1882-87, 4 vols.). Includes the earlier 
period of the Renaissance. 

Ludwig Pastor (R. Cath.) : Geschichte der Pdpste seit dem Ausgang des 
Mittelalters (Freiburg i. B., 1886 sqq. ; to be completed in 6 vols.). A 
counterpart of Ranke's Popes, as Janssen is of his Germany in the period 
of the Reformation ; a standard work of modern ultramontane histori- 
ography, equal to Janssen's History of Germany. Pastor includes, like 
Creighton, the popes of the Renaissance. 



AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 285 

Wilhelm Maurenbrecher (Prot., d. 1892) : Geschichte der katholischen 
Reformation (Nordlingen, Vol. L, 1880). 

The histories of the Council of Trent (Sarpi and Pallavicino), and the 
literature on the order of the Jesuits. 



CHAPTER CLXXVIII. 

AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. — ROMAN CATHOLIC AMERICA. 

"Westward the course of empire takes its way; 
The four first acts already past, 
A fifth shall close the drama with the day ; 
Time's noblest offspring is the last." 

Bishop Berkeley. 

America is the middle continent, looking eastward to Enrope 
and Africa, and westward to Asia and Australia. 

Providence has divided the Western Hemisphere between the 
Latin and the Teutonic races, and assigned to the former the 
southern, to the latter the northern half of the continent. The 
South is almost entirely Roman Catholic, the North predomi- 
nantly Protestant, as in Europe. 

The history of the Roman Church in America may. be divided 
into three periods : Spanish, French, and modern Anglo-Ameri- 
can (in the United States). 

Spanish America. 

American Church History, in the widest sense, begins with 
the discovery of America at the end of the Middle Ages, a 
quarter of a century before the Reformation. Christopher 
Columbus* was an ambitious adventurer, an avaricious gold- 
hunter, and a cruel despot, but also a great explorer, a devout 
Catholic, and a religious enthusiast. He believed in the exist- 
ence of a new world, and he found it in spite of the combined 
opposition of ignorance, prejudice, and bigotry. All things are 
possible to faith, and nothing great and good is possible with- 
out faith. True to his name, " Christbearer," he planted the 
cross on the first island he discovered (October 12, 1492), and 
called it San Salvador in honor of the Saviour. He hoped to 
apply the profits of his discovery to a new crusade for the res- 

* An Italian by birth {Cristoforo Colombo), a Spaniard by adoption 
(Christobal Colon), a cosmopolitan by mission and merit. America ought 
to have been called Columbia. 



286 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

cue of Jerusalem from the tyranny of the Turks. He concludes 
his first letter, after his return from the first voyage, addressed 
to Gabriel Sanchez, Treasurer of the King of Spain, with this 
eloquent appeal : 

"Therefore let the king and queen, the princes and their most fortu- 
nate kingdoms, and all other countries of Christendom give thanks to our 
Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, who has bestowed upon us so great a vic- 
tory and gift. Let religious processions be solemnized ; let sacred festi- 
vals be given ; let the churches be covered with festive garments. Let 
Christ rejoice on earth as he rejoices in heaven, when he foresees coming 
to salvation so many souls of people hitherto lost. Let us be glad also, as 
well on account of the exaltation of our faith, as on account of the increase 
of our temporal affairs, of which not only Spain, but universal Christendom, 
will be partaker. These things that have been done are thus briefly re- 
lated. Farewell. 

"Lisbon, the day before the Ides of March [March 14, 1493]." * 

His royal patron, Isabella the Catholic, whom Shakespeare 
calls " the queen of earthly queens," pledged her jewels for his 
enterprise, in the prospect of extending the kingdom of Christ 
as well as that of Spain, and ordered that the Indians should 
be treated with the utmost kindness and carefully instructed 
in religion. 

The West India Islands, Mexico and Peru, and all the coun- 
tries of Central and South America, were discovered and peo- 
pled by Spaniards and Portuguese, and were nominally con- 
verted to the Koman Catholic faith. Unfortunately, the conver- 
sion was darkened by the curse of filthy lucre and by atrocious 
cruelties to the innocent natives. An Indian chief of Cuba 
declared before he was burned alive, that gold was the real god 
of the Christians, and he refused the offer of a place in heaven 
if Spaniards should be found there. But we must not forget 
the noble Christian philanthropy of Bartholomeo de las Casas, 
"the apostle of the Indies," and the unselfish devotion of the 
Dominican and Franciscan missionaries who have earned a 
place among the heroes and martyrs of the Christian Church. 

The Spanish missions, radiating from Mexico, extended 
across the continent from Florida to California. The oldest 
city* in the present (not in the original) territory of the United 
States is St. Augustine, in Florida, which was founded in 1565, 

* See the translation of Tlie Letter of Columbus on the Discovery of Amer- 
ica, a facsimile of the Pictorial Edition ; printed by order of the Trustees of 
the Lenox Library (New York, 1892, p. 12). 



AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 287 

forty-two years before the settlement of Jamestown, in Vir- 
ginia (1607) ; but Florida is spotted with the first Protestant 
blood shed on American soil. An ominous beginning of secta- 
rian strife.* 

The Roman Church thus gained a vastly larger territory in 
America than she lost in Europe through the Protestant Ref- 
ormation. 

But the conquests of Spain north of Mexico were of short 
duration. Spain ceded Florida to the United States in 1819 ; 
Mexico lost Texas in 1845, and California and New Mexico in 
1848. 

Alexander VI. (a Spaniard, and the most wicked of popes) 
made a great mistake when, in the fullness of his apostolic 
power as the Vicar of Christ, he divided the New World be- 
tween the crowns of Spain and Portugal (ignoring the French), 
as a perpetual inheritance. So Columbus was mistaken to the 
hour of his death in the belief that he had simply discovered a 
western passage to India. The mistake was perpetuated in the 

name of the natives. 

New France. 

In the seventeenth century, Catholic France entered the lists 
for the possession of the new hemisphere, and extended her 
magnificent empire from the mouth of the St. Lawrence over 
the Northwest, and down the Mississippi Valley to the Gulf of 
Mexico. That- empire was not founded by the voluntary immi- 
gration of individuals and companies, like the English and Dutch 
settlements, but by the despotic will of a king for the extension 
of his power and of the Roman Church, and was kept under his 
control. It was not based upon political and religious liberty, 
but upon the feudalism and sacerdotalism of mediaeval Europe. 
It transplanted the principles of the papal counter-Reformation 
under the lead of the order of the Jesuits. 
. Quebec, founded by Champlain in 1608, and Montreal, founded 

* The Spaniards, in 1564, attacked the Huguenot settlers and hanged 
them on the trees, "Not as Frenchmen, but as heretics." The French- 
men soon afterwards avenged this barbarity by hanging the Spanish gar- 
rison on the same trees, "Not as Spaniards, but as cut-throats and mur- 
derers." The Spaniards held the Fort of St. Augustine till 1586, when it 
was captured by Sir Francis Drake. In 1763 the whole province of Florida 
was ceded to Great Britain in exchange for Cuba. By the treaty of 1783 
it was retroceded to Spain, and the greater part of the inhabitants moved 
to the United States. Finally in 1819 Spain ceded the whole province to 
the United States. Florida was admitted as a State into the Union in 
1845. 



288 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

in 1642, became the strategic centers of New France, and of the 
Roman Catholic propaganda. All honor to the missionaries of 
the type of Xavier ! The apostolic labors of Isaac Jogues, Bre- 
beuf, Charles Gamier, G-abriel Lalemant, and other Jesuits, in 
the well-nigh fruitless attempt to convert and civilize the Indian 
savages, form one of the brightest chapters in the missionary 
history of Christianity. They combined the bold enterprise of 
the crusaders with the patience of the early martyrs. They 
encountered incredible dangers and hardships in the unbroken 
wilderness and among untamed savages, and met the most 
cruel death with cheerful composure. The long sufferings of 
Jogues (1607-46) among the Mohawks, who killed him at last, 
are almost without a parallel in the annals of martyrdom. 

The unrighteous revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) 
was applied also to New France, and Louis XIV. directed the 
governor of Canada to quarter his troops in the houses of 
any Huguenots, or to imprison them. The governor informed 
the king that there was not a heretic in Canada. To this day 
the French Canadians are stricter Romanists than the French 
themselves. 

But France lost her magnificent empire in Canada and on 
the Mississippi in the long conflict with England, which cul- 
minated in the victory of "Wolfe over Montcalm on the Plains 
of Abraham at Quebec, 1759, and was concluded by the peace 
of 1763. France took revenge by aiding the American Colo- 
nies in the War of Independence. Napoleon sold the territory 
of Louisiana to the United States in 1803. 

The loss of the Latin race was the gain of the Anglo-Saxon 
race, and led to the supremacy of the United States and of 
Protestantism on the northern continent. 

The present strength and future importance of the Roman 
Church in America must be sought not in French Canada, nor 
in Spanish America, but in the United States, where she is en- 
riched by Teutonic and Celtic blood, and stimulated by the 
progressive spirit of Protestantism. There is good ground for 
the expectation that in becoming Americanized she will be also 

liberalized. 

Literature. 

I. Spanish America : — The principal authorities on the Columbian dis- 
covery and the conversion of the Indians are the letters and journals of 
Columbus; the writings of Bart, de las Casas, Bernaldez, Oviedo, 
Peter Martyr, Herrera ; and the invaluable collection of documents by 



CHURCH HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 289 

• 
Navarrete (d. 1844, Coleccion de mages, etc., Madrid, 1825-37, 5 vols. ; 
French translation, Paris, 1828, 3 vols. ; also an Italian version). 

Of modern writers we mention Robertson {History of America) ; Wash- 
ington Irving {Life and Voyages of Columbus, a rose-colored view) ; Pres- 
cott {History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella) ; Hefele {Der Cardi- 
nal Ximenes, 2d ed. 1851); Winsor {Columbus, 1891, very unfavorable to 
Columbus); John Fiske {The Discovery of America, 1892, 2 vols.); Cas- 
telar {Life of Columbus, 1892) ; Edward John Payne {History of the 
New World called America, London and New York, 1892 sqq. ) ; and the ex- 
tensive Columbus literature of 1892. 

II. French America : — John Gilmary Shea (R. Cath., d. 1892) : History 
of the Catholic Missions among the Indians of the United States (New York, 
1855). — Francis Parkman : France and England in North America (Boston, 
1865-92, 6 parts in 7 vols.). Especially Part II., under the separate title : 
TJie Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth Century (Boston, 1867, and 
several later editions). This is the standard work on the conflict between 
France and England in North America, based upon original documents. 
Parkman does full justice to the heroic Jesuit missionaries, but distin- 
guishes two periods in their missions, the earlier of which was strictly 
religious, the later more political and unsuccessful. 



CHAPTER CLXXIX. 

CHURCH HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

North America was first discovered under the flag of Eng- 
land (by John Cabot, 1497, and his son Sebastian C, 1498). It 
was settled chiefly by Englishmen, and predestinated for the 
Teutonic races of northern Europe. It was built up by Prot- 
estant genius and enterprise. It has far outstripped Latin 
America in progress, prosperity, and influence upon the Church 
and the world, and will soon rival with Europe as a theater of 
history. 

American Church History, in the narrower sense, is there- 
fore chiefly a church history of the United States and of Can- 
ada. It begins in the seventeenth century, with the settlements 
of Virginia (1607), of New York (1609), and of New England 
(1620). The Puritan colonies of Plymouth, Salem, Boston, 
Hartford, and New Haven were of a strictly religious charac- 
ter, and have determined and controlled American theology and 
church life in the colonial period. 

No nation, except the Jewish, has such a religious origin. 
The fathers and founders of this Republic fled from persecution,. 
and made sacrifices for their faith ; they were not gold-hunters^ 



290 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

» 

like the Spaniards and Portuguese, but sought first of all a 
home for the free worship of God according to the dictates of 
their conscience. The blessing of their piety and virtue, their 
reverence for the Word of God, the Lord's Day, and the Church 
of God, remain to this day as a safeguard against the influx of 
modern worldliness, indifference, and infidelity. 

The roots of the American Churches are in Europe. New 
England Congregationalism is directly descended from Eng- 
lish Puritanism ; the Presbyterian Churches are chiefly derived 
from Scotland and the north of Ireland ; the Protestant Epis- 
copal Church from the Church of England ; the Dutch Church 
from Holland ; the Lutheran Church from Germany and Scan- 
dinavia ; the German Reformed Church from the Palatinate and 
Switzerland 5 the Roman Catholic Church is recruited from all 
countries of Europe, but chiefly from Ireland and Germany. 
The two largest denominations, however, the Baptist and the 
Methodist, were from the start Anglo-American, and grew up 
simultaneously in England and in the American colonies, the 
one through the labors of Roger Williams in Rhode Island, the 
other through the evangelistic visits of John Wesley and George 
Whitefleld. Unitarianism, Universalism, and Mormonism are 
of native American origin ; the first, however, was preceded by 
a similar movement in England. 

It is remarkable that the older denominations are more con- 
servative and orthodox in America than in Europe. While 
Rationalism has revolutionized the Protestant Churches of 
Germany, Switzerland, France, and Holland, the Churches of 
the United States hold fast to their traditional creeds. One 
reason is that the universities of Europe, including the theolog- 
ical faculties, are institutions of the State, which is indifferent 
to creeds ; while American schools of theology are founded, 
supported, and ruled by the Churches* But a change is com- 
ing on with the immense progress of biblical and historical 
research in recent times. An increasing number of American 
scholars complete their studies in European universities and in 
Bible lands, and on their return take an active share in solving 
the problems of modern theology.t 

* There are exceptions, as the Union Theological Seminary of New York, 
and some Congregational and Baptist institutions, which were founded by 
individuals. 

t The pioneer of independent theological learning in America is Dr. 
Edward Robinson, the author of the Biblical Researches, and of a Hebrew 



CHURCH HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 291 

American Christianity starts with the invaluable inheritance 
of the Christian civilization of Europe. It covers an immense 
field of virgin territory with inexhaustible natural resources. 
It is rapidly increasing by peaceful emigration from the differ- 
ent nationalities of the Old World, with many of its best as 
well as its worst elements. It embraces all the Churches and 
sects, which import their traditions and peculiar gifts as mould- 
ing forces of the future, and enjoy full liberty of action on a 
basis of equality before the law. It furnishes all the material 
for a final settlement of the controversies of Christendom. 

To a superficial observer blinded by papal or infidel precon- 
ceptions, the ecclesiastical map of the United States presents a 
wilderness of warring sects, a helium omnium contra omnes. But 
they are nearly all imported from Europe, and only brought 
into closer proximity. There are as many sects in England, 
and as many monastic orders in the Roman Church; while 
there is in America a growing tendency towards practical co- 
operation in common Christian and philanthropic work and 
moral reform movements. 

American Church History is divided into a colonial and a 
national period. The colonies were from the beginning refuges 
for people of different denominations — Puritans, Presbyterians, 
Huguenots, Baptists, Quakers, Roman Catholics, etc. — and were 
thus predestined to protect religious freedom on a larger scale 
than any other country. But this manifest destiny was not fully 
understood till after the War of Independence, which united 
the separate colonies with their different sects into one nation 
under one Constitution, with equal protection to all. 

The distinctive character of American Christianity since the 
adoption of the Federal Constitution is the voluntary prin- 
ciple of self-support and self-government in friendly rela- 
tion to the State. The Apostolic and ante-Nicene Church was 
likewise self-supporting and self-governing, but persecuted by 
the heathen State ; while the American government is based 
upon Christian civilization. There is here no State Church 
domineering over dissenting sects. No apology is needed for 
being a Dissenter. The law makes no difference between 
churches and sects, or churchmen and dissenters, but recog- 

and a Greek Lexicon (d. 1863). He was in his day almost the only Amer- 
ican divine known in Europe. Sidney Smith used to ask : " Who reads 
an American book? " Now he might ask : " Who does not read American 

books?" 



292 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

nizes all Christian denominations alike and treats them with 
even justice. We have a free Church in a free State. The 
relation of Church and State is based upon Christ's declaration 
to " render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and unto 
God the things that are God's " (Matt. 22 : 21). Each of the two 
powers is entirely independent in its own sphere, and not al- 
lowed to intermeddle with the rights and duties of the other • 
but the State protects the Church in her property and liberty 
of action, and the Church strengthens the moral foundations 
of the State. 

The separation of Church and State, therefore, is not owing 
to religious indifference or disrespect, and must not be under- 
stood to be a separation of the nation from the Church ; on the 
contrary, the American people are as Christian as any people 
in Europe, and do much more for the support of Church and 
school than any government.* But they have learned from 
the past that the union of Church and State is a source of re- 
ligious persecution and civil war, and that religion nourishes 
best in the atmosphere of freedom. Hence the first Amend- 
ment of the Federal Constitution forbids Congress to establish 
a State Church, or to interfere with the liberty of religion. 
Similar guarantees are given in the constitutions of the sev- 
eral States. 

The voluntary principle has so far worked very successfully, 
and shown its superiority over State-churchism. It has not 
diminished the respect for the Church and the clergy, but in- 
creased it, and has improved the quality and efficiency of min- 
isters. It has stimulated and developed individual energy and 
liberality in building churches, supporting pastors, establishing 
colleges, theological seminaries, and other literary and benevo- 
lent institutions, and in promoting the cause of Christianity 
at home and abroad. There is no good cause which appeals in 
vain to American generosity. 

This freedom of a self-supporting and self-governing Chris- 
tianity is a new chapter in history, and the strength and glory 
of America. The spread of the gospel and the future of the 

* In this judgment the most intelligent foreign writers on America who 
have visited the country, are fully agreed. Alexis de Tocqueville says 
that " there is no country in the whole world in which the Christian religion 
retains a greater influence over the souls of men than in America " (De- 
mocracy in America, I. 285). The incidental judgment of Prof. James 
Bryce of Oxford on religion in America is equally favorable (The American 
Commonivealth, II., 246, 567). 



CHURCH HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 293 

human race will largely depend upon the combined energies of 
the people of Great Britain and the United States. 

The Church History of the United States has yet to be writ- 
ten, and this is a task worthy of the time and strength of ris- 
ing scholars ; for this is the land of freedom and of the future. 
Denominational and local histories we have in abundance, and 
the number is fast increasing, but there is no worthy history of 
American Christianity which represents it as an organic whole, 
in its genesis and growth, its connections with the mother 
Churches in Europe, its characteristic peculiarities, and its great 
mission for the future. 

Special chairs ought to be established in our seminaries for 
American Church History. 

Literature. 

Eobert Baird (Presbyt., d. 1863) : Religion in America (New York, 
1856). Not a history, but a collection of material for history down to 
that year. 

Daniel Dorchester (Methodist) : Christianity in the United States from 
the First Settlement down to the Present Time (New York, 1888, pp. 795). 
A considerable improvement npon the former, as an industrious collection 
of facts, statistical tables and maps, but marred by numerous inaccura- 
cies. The author is a sanguine optimist with Methodist sympathies. 

Philip Schaff : Church and State in the United States, or the American 
Idea of Religious Liberty and its Practical Effects. With Official Documents 
(New York, 1888). — America ; a Sketch of its Political, Social, and Religious 
Character (New York, 1855. Lectures delivered in Berlin and first published 
in German). — Der Bilrgerkrieg und das christliche Leben in Nord Amerika 
(Berlin, 1866). — Christianity in the United States (New York, 1879. An ad- 
dress before the Seventh General Conference of the Evangelical Alliance at 
Basel).— Art. " Nord Amerika " in Herzog 2 , X. (1882), 631-642. 

John F. Hurst : Short History of the Christian Church (New York, 1893), 
pp. 431-643. 

Friedrich Nippold (Prof, of Church History in Jena) : Amerikanische 
Kirchengeschichte seit der Unabhangigkeitserklarung der Vereinigten Staaten 
(Berlin, 1892, pp. 270). This is the first part of the 4th vol. of his Hand- 
bnch der neuesten Kirchengeschichte seit der Restauration von 1814 (Elber- 
feld, 1867 sqq. ; 4th ed. revised 1889 sqq.). The American history, as 
may be expected, is inferior in size and importance to any of the first 
three vols., which are devoted to the modern Church History of Europe, 
but fuller and more accurate than other German works on the American 
Churches. Nippold is an admirer of Bunsen and Dollinger, and finds his 
Church ideal in Anglo-American episcopacy (with lay representation and 
two houses), and in Old Catholicism. He gives lists of the leading divines 
of the different denominations, and has used some of the latest sources of 
information (as the "Papers of the American Society of Church History"). 
He marks a great advance over the views of Gieseler on America (quoted 
p. 11), who thought that love of money, cold selfishness, hypocritical 



294 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

piety, overweening conceit, and contempt for everything European are 
the leading traits (Hauptziige) of the American character, especially of the 
Yankees, New Yorkers and Pennsylvanians ! (See the posthumous volume 
of his Kirchengeschichte, V. 372). Such an opinion, which makes the very 
truth lie, was very common among scholars on the Continent some thirty or 
fifty years ago. The philosopher Schelling told me that Mormonism seemed 
to him the only important fact in the Church history of America. Hegel 
ignores America altogether in his Philosophic der Geschichte, although he 
teaches (p. 546) that the history of the world is the development of the 
idea of liberty. 

The best foreign works on the political institutions of the United States 
are Alexis de Tocqueville's Democracy in America (1835, translated by 
Henry Reeve, 1845), and James Bryce's American Commonivealth (2 vols., 
1889, 3d ed. rev. 1892). 

The chief secular historians of America, who must be consulted by the 
Church historian, especially in the colonial period, are George Bancroft 
(Colonial History down to Adoption of the Federal Constitution, last 
revision, 1082-85) ; Eichard Hjldreth (Colonial History to the End of 
Sixteenth Congress, 1849-52) ; Justin Winsor (Narrative and Critical 
History ; a collection of independent essays by a number of scholars, with 
a full bibliography; 8 vols., 1889-92); H. von Holst (Constitutional and 
Political History of the United States, from 1750 to 1859, translated by J. J. 
Lalor and A. B. Mason; 6 vols., 1876-89); J. B. McMaster (History of 
the People of the United States, vols. 1-3, 1884-91, to be completed in 5 
vols.); James Schouler (History of the United States under the Constitu- 
tion, 1783-1861 ; 5 vols., 1880-91) ; Henry Adams (Histories of the Ad- 
ministrations, beginning with Jefferson's ; 9 vols, covering period from 
1801 to 1817, thus far published, 1889-91) ; and Edward John Payne, 
already noticed in Chapter CLXXVIIL). 

"The American Society of Church History," founded in 1888, at its 
third meeting, held in Washington, December 31, 1890, resolved to under- 
take the preparation of a critical American Church History, in a series of 
denominational histories on a uniform plan by a number of competent and 
unsectarian scholars. It will be published in New York, under the super- 
vision of an editorial committee, consisting of Dr. Schaff, Bishop Potter, 
Prof. Geo. P. Fisher, Bishop Hurst, Prof. E. J. Wolf, Rev. H. C. Vedder, 
and Rev. S. M. Jackson, LL.D., in ten or more volumes, to be concluded 
by a compendious history of American Christianity as a whole. 



CHAPTER CLXXX. 

ECCLESIASTICAL MONOGRAPHY. 

Monography is a most useful department, and indispensable 
to the general historian. It furnishes him with characteristic 
details and fills the gaps. In the ever-widening extent of his- 
tory the monographic treatment is the best way of effectually 



ECCLESIASTICAL MOXOGRAPHY. 295 

promoting an accurate general history. Few are called to write 
a universal history of Christianity, bnt many may successfully 
cultivate portions of it. 

A monographer views his subject under all its aspects and 
environments, in its antecedents and consequents, and weaves 
into it a picture of the whole age to which it belongs. He may 
select a person, or a doctrine, or any specific topic of history. 

1. Biographical monographs are thorough and exhaustive 
histories of distinguished persons of more or less representa- 
tive character. They follow them from the cradle to the grave, 
into the secrets of their private life as well as into their public 
labors, and show how they are children of their age, and in turn 
have influenced and shaped their age. 

2. Doctrinal monographs follow a particular doctrine from 
its germ in the New Testament through the successive ages of 
its development to its ultimate matured shape as it appears in 
the formulated statements of creeds and confessions of faith. 

3. Any other topic of church history may be treated mono- 
graphically, i. e., with minute reference to all the details and 
subordinate relations which must necessarily be omitted in a 
general Church History. 

Literature. 

I. Biographical monography begins, we may say, with Eusebius' Life of 
Constantine (d. 337), which, however, is more of a eulogy than impartial 
and independent history. The most extensive collection of biographies of 
Saints is the Acta Sanctorum of the Bollandists, begun in 1643 and not 
yet completed. Tillemont treated the history of the first five centuries 
monographically (Memoires, 1693 sqq.). 

Among Protestants, Neander has given the greatest impulse to this 
method of historiography, by his Julian the Apostate, Tertidlian, St. Chrysos- 
tom, St. Bernard. We have now monographs on most of the great church 
fathers, popes, schoolmen, mystics, monks, reformers and missionaries, 
too numerous to mention. One of the latest and best is Dr. R. S. Storrs' 
Bernard of Clairvaux (New York, 1892). Fr. Bohringer (assisted by his 
son, Paul B. ) has written the history of the whole Church, from the sec- 
ond century to the Reformation, in biographies {Die Kirche Christi wid 
ihre Zeugen, new ed. 1873-78, in 12 vols.). 

II. Doctrinal and dogmatic-historical monographs are of more recent 
origin. The ablest specimens are Baur's History of the Doctrine of the 
Trinity and Incarnation (1843, 3 vols.), and his History of the Doctrine of 
the Atonement (1838) ; Dorner's History of ChristoJogy (1839, enlarged 
ed. 1856, 2 vols.) ; Muller's Doctrine of Sin (6th ed. 1878, 2 vols. ; more 
dogmatic than historical) ; Ritschl's The Christian Doctrine of Justifica- 
tion and Atonement (3d ed. 1889, 3 vols. ; the first vol. is historical) ; Eb- 
rard's History of the Doctrine of the LoroVs Supper (1846, 2 vols.) ; Al- 



296 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

ger's History of the Doctrine of a Future Life (1863 ; 12th ed. 1885 ; with 
bibliography by Prof. Ezra Abbot, which is a model of accuracy and 
completeness). 



CHAPTER CLXXXI. 

LITERATURE OF GENERAL CHURCH HISTORY. 

A fuller account in Schaff's Introduction to his History of the Apostolic 
Church (1853), pp. 51-135, and in his History of the Christian Church, vol. i., 
27-53 (third revision, 1889). — Baur : Die Epochen der Mrchlichen Geschichts- 
schreibung (1852). — Hase : Kirchengeschichte aufder Grundlage dkademischer 
Vorlesungen (1885), vol. i., 35-60. 

The literature of Church History is the most extensive, next 
to that of the Bible. The time is coming when a general knowl- 
edge of the history of Christianity will be considered an essen- 
tial part of liberal culture. For the Church of Christ is the 
central institution in the world, as the Bible is the Book of 
books. The profoundest theme of history is the problem of 
religion and the conflict between faith and unbelief .* 

But as the Bible, owing to its very importance, has been 
more frequently misunderstood and misinterpreted than any 
book, so has Church History been more misrepresented and 
perverted than secular history, for partisan and sectarian inter- 
ests. Facts may be obscured, exaggerated, or underestimated 
under the bias of preconceived notions ; and thus the truth itself 
may be " made void because of tradition" (comp. Matt. 15 : 6). 

The ancient historians, in their zeal for orthodoxy, rarely do 
justice to heretics. The historians of the Greek Church are 
polemical against the Latin, and the historians of the Latin 
Church against the Greek. Heretical historians are equally 
unjust to orthodoxy. 

The war between Eomanists and Protestants is reflected in 
their historians, and carried on even to our days. 

* This was acknowledged even by such a worldly poet as Goethe, who 
says : " Das eigentliche, einzige und tiefste TJiema der Welt — und Menschen- 
geschichte, dem alle iibrigen untergeordnet sind, bleibtder KonfliMdes Glaubens 
und des TJnglaubens. Alle Epochen, in welchen der Glaube herrscht, — sind 
gldnzend, herzerhebend und fruchtbar fur Mit- und Nachwclt. Alle Epochen 
dagegen, in welchen der TJnglaube, in welcher Form es sei, einen Tcummerlichen 
Sieg beliauptet, und wenn sie auch einen Augenblick mit einem Scheingla)iz 
prahlen sollten, verschioinden vor der Nachwelt, iveil sich niemand gem mit 
Erkenntniss des Unfruchtbaren abqualen mag." — {Israel in der Wiiste, 1797, 
JVestostl. Divan, p. 313.) 



CHURCH HISTORIANS BEFORE THE REFORMATION. 297 

At the end of the last century, rationalism took hold of 
Church History in the spirit of hostile neutrality and indiffer- 
ence, and turned the most important doctrinal controversies 
into worthless logomachies, and the whole history into a bed- 
lam.* 

But the true historic spirit which aims at the truth, the whole 
truth and nothing but the truth, is making steady progress and 
dominates in the great historians of the nineteenth century. 

CHAPTER CLXXXII. 

CHURCH HISTORIANS BEFORE THE REFORMATION. 

Eusebius, "the father of Church History," or the Christian Herodotus, 
who saw the last persecution and the triumph of the Church (d. 340) : 'E/c- 
K?ir)oiaGTiKjj 'loropia, from the birth of Christ to Constantine the Great (324). 
A work of permanent value as a source. 

His successors in the Greek Church : Socrates till 439, Sozomen till 
423, Theodoret till 428. 

Best English translation of the Greek historians, with commentary, in 
the Second Series of the Xicene and Post-Nicene Library of the Fathers 
(N. Yc and Oxf., 1890-92, vols, i.-iii.). 

The Latin Church contented itself with extracts from Eusebius and his 
continuators. 

Cassiodorus (d. 562) : Historia tripartita. — Eufinus (d. 410) supple- 
mented Eusebius. — Sulpicius Severus (d. 410) : Historia Sacra or Chronica. 

The Middle Ages produced valuable material for history, especially in 
the form of annals and biographies of popes, bishops, monks, missionaries, 
and saints, but no great general Church History. 

In the period of the Eenaissance, the spirit of historical criticism was 
awakened by Laurentius Valla (d. 1457), who may be called a forerun- 
ner of Erasmus. He ventured to criticise and correct Jerome's Vulgate, 
rejected Christ's letter to King Abgar of Edessa as a forgery, threw doubts 
on the apostolic origin of the Apostles' Creed, and destroyed the hierarch- 
ical fiction of the Donation of Constantine as " contradictory, impossible, 
stupid, barbarous and ridiculous." For these views, which are now uni- 
versally accepted even by Eoman Catholic scholars, he excited the suspi- 
cion of the Roman Inquisition, but escaped its punishment by the hypo- 
critical confession that he believed as Mother Church believed. 

* Of this kind of Church historiography Goethe said in the Zalime 
Xenien : 

" Mit Kirchengeschichte was hal) ich zu schaffen f 
Ich sehe iveiter nichts als Pfaffen ! 
Wie's urn die Christen steht, die Gemeinen, 
Davon will mir gar nichts erscheinen." 



298 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 



CHAPTER CLXXXIII. 

HISTORIANS OF THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH 

CENTURIES. 

Church History, as a critical science, began with the Keformation, 
which emancipated the mind from the tyranny of an infallible traditional- 
ism. It roused the spirit of inquiry which separates facts from fiction 
and truth from error by proving all things and holding fast to what is 
good (I. Thess. 5:21). But for a long time history was subordinated to 
dogmas and carried on in a polemic and sectarian spirit. The Protestant 
historians saw in the pope the Antichrist, in the mediaeval Roman Church 
the great apostasy predicted in prophecy, and in the Reformation the 
restoration of the Apostolic Church ; while the Roman Catholic historians 
represented the Reformation as an apostasy from the true historic Church 
of Christ, and blackened the character of the Reformers as rebels and arch- 
heretics. 

Matthias Flacius, a learned and zealous Lutheran and unsparing foe 
of Papists, Calvinists, and Melanchthonians (d. 1575), aided by princes 
and cities and by several Protestant divines then at Magdeburg (the 
stronghold of the uncompromising enemies of the Imperial Interim), pre- 
pared the Magdeburg Centuries {Ecclesiastica Historia JSf. Testamenti, Basil., 
1559-74), covering thirteen Christian centuries in as many large folio vol- 
umes, the first history from a Protestant point of view in opposition to the 
claims of Romanism. An epoch-making work of herculean labor, but 
overgrown with polemics. 

In the Reformed " Church, J. H. Hotting er (1651), Frederic Spanheim 
(1689), and Sam. Basnagc (1699) wrote with equal learning and zeal, but 
more sober judgment, against the papal Church. 

Their pessimistic view of the "dark" ages, illuminated by a few sporadic 
witnesses of the truth, controlled and obscured Protestant Church History 
down to the eighteenth century, and still prevails in popular antipopery 
literature, though abandoned by the best Protestant historians. 

Cardinal Caesar Baronius (1538-1607), the father of papal historiogra- 
phy, wrote Ecclesiastical Annals, in 12 folio volumes, down to the year 1198 
(published at Rome 1588-1607), in rhetorico-polemical style, and in defense 
of Romanism against the Greek Church and against Protestantism, with 
occasional reference to Flacius, whose Centuries he called "Centuries of 
Satan." It is a work of immense learning and unwearied industry, drawn 
largely from the treasures of the Vatican and still valuable for its material, 
but to be used with caution on account of the numerous chronological errors, 
spurious documents and legends. It was continued in the same spirit and 
style, but with inferior talent by Raynaldi till 1565, by Laderchi till 1571, 
by Theiner till 1585, and others. Two French Franciscans, Antoine and 
Francois Pagi, wrote correcting and supplementary criticisms (Critica 
hist.-chronologica in Annales Baronii, 1705-27, 4 vols.), which are incor- 
porated in Mansi's ed. of Baronius and his successors, Lucca, 1738-59, 38 



SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES. 299 

vols. fol. ; new ed. by Aug. Theiner, Bar-le-Duc, 1864 sqq. (to be finished 
in about 50 vols.).* 

The monumental works of Flaeius and Baronius furnished abundant 
material for abridgments, with which the two Churches were contented for 
many years, till, in the middle of the seventeenth century, a new zeal for 
history was stimulated in the French Catholic Church by the controversy 
with Protestants and Jansenists. The best work was done by Gallicans 
and Jansenists. They were aided by the invaluable patristic and archae- 
ological labors of the Benedictines of the Congregation of St. Maur, as 
Mabillon, Massuet, Montfaucon, and others. 

Natalis (Noel) Alexander, a Dominican at Rouen, professor in Paris 
(d. 1724, eighty-six years old and blind), wrote an Ristoria Ecclesiastica, 
V. et X. Testamenti till 1600, in 26 vols. (Paris, 1676-88). Put on the Index 
by Innocent XL (1684) on account of its Gallicanism ; hence expurgated 
editions. 

Sebastien le Nain de Tillemont (d. 1698), a pupil and friend of the 
Jansenists, in his still valuable Hemoires (Paris, 1693-1712, 16 vols.), pre- 
pared in thirty years the history of the first six centuries (till 513) from the 
words of the original sources, translated into French after the bibliograph- 
ical model of Plutarch, and in the spirit of liberal G-allican Catholicism. 

Claude Fleury (educated under Bossuet and Fenelon, confessor of 
Louis XV., d. 1723) carried his Histoire ecclesiastique down to 1414, in 20 
vols. (Paris, 1691-1720) ; continued by Claude Fab re till 1595, in 16 vols. 
Popular, Gallican, in elegant French. Partly translated under the direc- 
tion of John H. (Cardinal) Newman before his transition to Eome (Oxford, 
1842). 

* Hase (i., 36 sq.) thus characterizes the two representative Church his- 
torians of the sixteenth century: "Flaeius und Baronius im schroffsten Ge- 
gensatze stehn doch auf gleicliem Standpunkte. Gemeinsam ist ihnen die Aner- 
Tcennung der apostolischen Kirche als der vollkommenen Gestalt der Kirche, 
audi der ersten 5 Jahrhunderte, als massgebend fur alle Zeit, doch so dass 
Flaeius einzelne Naevi, Muttermale, bei den grossen Kirchenlehrern findet. 
Gemeinsam die super natur ale Betrachtung : in alttestamentlicher Anschauung 
unmittelbar aus Gottes Hand Lohn und Strafe. Beide haben Hire Lust am 
Wunderbaren, die Centurien habeyi ein eignes Kapitel fur Miracula und Pro- 
digia, doch weniger zur Verherrlichung der Heiligen, mehr als gottliche Straf- 
gerichte. Gemeinsam endlich die dualistische Weltanschauung : die Welt- und 
Kirchengeschichte ein Kampf der beiden jenseitigen Mdchte, des dreieinigen 
Gottes und des Satan, wenn auch hein unentschiedner. Ihr Grundunterschied 
ist: Flaeius ist historischer Pessimist, Baronius Optimist. Ihm [Baronius] 
erscheint die katholische Kirche wesentlich immer als dieselbe siegreich iiber 
alle Gegensdtze. Er leugnet nicht dunMe Zeiten, das lOte Jahrhundert eine 
vorubergehende VerdunJcelung, um die rettende Wundermacht desto gliinzender 
zu zeigen. Christus im Seesturm ist ihm ein Sinnbildfur alle Zeiten: immer 
blcibe dem Frommen der Trost, auch wenn Christus schlafe, dass er im Schiff- 
lein des h. Petrus schldft. Nur die gottlosen Neuerer, die nichts wissen com 
Glauben, auf den sie sich berufen, verf alien, wenn sie das Schifflein Petri ein- 
mahl von den Wogen iiber fluthet sehn, in die Lasterung, dass Christus nicht 
mehr darin sei. Flaeius dagegen salt nach dem 5ten Jahrhundert eine im- 
mer dunklere Verfinsterung, nach dem gemeinsamen Glauben seiner Kirche : 
Bom Babylonien, das Papstthum das Hysterium Iniquitatis, der Papst der 
Fndechrist, der sich im Tempel Gottes anbeten lasst. Eine revolutiondre Ge- 
schichtsanschauung, die nichts Yergangenes zu achten hat." 



300 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

CHAPTER CLXXXIV. 

HISTORIANS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 

Gotfried Arnold (d. 1714), a learned mystic of the Pietistic school of 
Spener, took a new departure, in opposition to the intolerant orthodoxy of 
the Lutheran Church, in his Impartial History of the Church and of Heretics, 
to A.D. 1688 (Unpartheiische Kirchen- und Ketzerhistorie, Frankfort, 1699 
sqq., 4 vols. fol.). He advocated the interests of practical piety, and the 
claims of heretics and schismatics, and all those who suffered persecution 
from an intolerant hierarchy and orthodoxy. His historical pessimism goes 
farther than that of Flacius, and hands the whole historic Churches — Greek, 
Roman and Protestant — over to the reign of Antichrist, leaving in each 
only a little flock that never bowed the knees to Baal. But he boldly broke 
down the walls of bigotry, and without intending it, prepared the way for 
a skeptical treatment of history. He first substituted the German for the 
customary Latin in learned works, but his style is rude and insipid. 

The History of the Church of Christ by Joseph Milner (Vicar of Hull, 
d. 1797 ; continued by Isaac Milner and Stebbing) is written in the Pietis- 
tic spirit of Arnold, but for popular edification, and is free from polemics. 

J. Lorenz von Mosheim (Chancellor of the University of Gottingen, 
d. 1755) : Institutes of Ecclesiastical History, in Latin (Helmstadt, 1755). 
Mosheim marks an epoch. He was a moderate and impartial Lutheran, 
educated in the school of the classical and French historians, and the first 
German who raised Church History to the dignity and interest of an art. 
In this respect he may be compared to Bossuet. He surpassed all his 
predecessors in skillful construction, clear though mechanical and monoto- 
nous arrangement, critical sagacity, pragmatic combination, freedom from 
polemical passion, almost bordering on cool indifferentism, and in easy 
elegance of Latin style. He follows the centurial plan of Flacius, but in 
simpler form, and combines it with the division into four periods (from 
Christ to Constantine, from Constantine to Luther, from the Reformation 
to 1700), and with the mechanical division into external and internal his- 
tory, into prosperous and calamitous events. His Institutes were trans- 
lated and supplemented by Maclaine and Murdock (5th ed. New York, 
1854, 3 vols. ; best ed. by W. Stubbs, London, 1863), and continued in use 
as a text-book much longer in England and America than in Germany. 

J. M. Schrockh, a pupil of Mosheim, but touched with the neological 
spirit of Semler, and professor of poetry, afterwards of history, at Witten- 
berg (d. 1808), is the author of the most extensive German work on Chris- 
tian Church History (Leipzig, 1768-1810, in 45 vols.). It reaches with its 
continuation by Tzschirner to the end of the eighteenth century, is com- 
piled from the sources in a mild and candid spirit, and written in clear but 
diffuse style. It adopts the periodic plan instead of the centurial, which 
was still followed by Mosheim. Very unequal in different parts, but use- 
ful for occasional reference. Nobody ever read it through except the 
author and proof-reader. 



HISTORIANS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 301 

The Church History of H. P. C. Henke (Professor in Helmstadt, d. 1809), 
continued by Vater (Braunschweig, 1788-1820, 9 vols.), is rationalistic and 
ignores the divine side of the Church. He derives the chief events from 
hierarchical ambition, and represents "Athanasius as a stubborn crank, 
Augustin as an unmasked Manichsean and dialectical babbler, and Cather- 
ine of Siena as a silly old woman." (Hase, vol. i., p. 43.) 

Spittler (d. 1810) of Gottingen wrote a compend (1782, 6th ed. 1827) 
in the same derogatory spirit, which destroys all real interest in Church 
History except that of mere literary and antiquarian curiosity. 



CHAPTER CLXXXV. 

HISTORIANS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

(1) The Protestant historians take the lead. 

August Neander (originally David Mendel, a convert from Moses and 
Plato to Christ, a Christian Nathanael without guile, Professor of Church 
History in Berlin — where he lived like one of those learned Benedictines of 
Paris, absorbed in patristic studies and in teaching enthusiastic students ; 
d. 1850) marks an epoch in this study, and is called the modern "father 
of Church History." He rescued it from the icy grasp of rationalism, in- 
fused into it the warm love of Christ, the ever-present Head of the Church, 
and made it a rich fountain of edification as well as instruction. His 
General History of the Christian Religion and Church (Hamburg, 1825-52, 11 
parts; 3d ed. 1856 in 4 large vols., with an introduction by Dr. Ullmann; 
translated by Torrey, Boston, 1847-52 ; new ed. with complete index, 1881, 
6 vols.) extends to the Council of Basel, 1430. It is characterized by pro- 
found learning, impartial judgment, spiritual insight into religious life and 
the development of Christian doctrines, and by evangelical catholicity and 
loving sympathy with all types of Christian piety. It is defective in the 
secular, political and artistic sections, and somewhat diffuse and monoto- 
nous in style. Neander's motto was, "Pectus est quod theologian [not dis- 
sertuni] facit." He felt most at home in the invisible church of thought 
and spiritual life, and in those periods where religion has nothing to do 
with politics, nor the Church with the State — except to be persecuted, as 
in the first three centuries. He dictated the last pages, on "the Friends 
of God," the forerunners of the Eeformation, a few hours before his death, 
and then said to his faithful sister : "I am weary ; let us go home." * 

Equally valuable, though of an altogether different plan and spirit, is the 
Church History of J. C. L. Gieseler (Professor in Bonn, afterwards in Got- 
tingen, d. 1854). It was published in Bonn, 1824-56, in 5 vols, (nominally 
in 3 vols., but in 8 parts) ; 4th ed. 1844-57 ; the last two volumes, from 1648 
to 1848, were posthumously edited from lectures by Dr. Redepenning (1855 
and 1857), and are of inferior merit as they lack the critical notes. English 
translation by Davidson and Hull in England, revised and completed by 

* Comp. Schaff : August Neander. Erinnerungen (Gotha, 1886) ; and Har- 
nack, Rede auf Neander zur Feier seines 100 jdhr.-Geburtstags, 17 Jan. 1889 
(Berlin, 1889). 



302 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

H. B. Smith, and after the death of the latter, 1877, by Lewis French 
Stearns and Miss Mary Robinson of New York (with preface by Philip 
Schaff, 1857-80, in 5 vols.).* 

Gieseler was an honest, sober, level-headed rationalist of the school 
of Wegscheider, but with more learning and appreciation of history than 
his rationalistic predecessors. The first three volumes, edited by himself, 
extend to the Treaty of Westphalia, 1648 (in the English translation, the 
first four and a part of the fifth volume). The text (except in the last two 
volumes) is a dry, meager and unsympathetic, but impartial skeleton of 
facts and dates ; the body of the work consists of carefully selected ex- 
tracts and proof texts from the sources which furnish the data for an in- 
dependent judgment. He makes each age speak for itself. He follows 
the method of Tillemont, but reverses his order by throwing the sources 
into footnotes. His critical and literary notes are also very valuable. 
Neander and Gieseler have been the chief feeders of modern manuals. 
They supplement each other; the one furnishes a subjective reproduc- 
tion, the other the raw material, of Church History. They are not yet 
superseded. 

The Church History of Ferdinand Christian von Baur, the founder of 
the Tubingen School (d. 1860), was partly published after his death (Tubin- 
gen, 1863, in 5 vols.). The first two volumes comprising the first five centu- 
ries are the best, and contain his original investigations. He was an inde- 
fatigable scholar, distinguished for philosophic grasp, critical combination, 
and bold conjectures in the treatment of the apostolic and post-apostolic 
ages, and the ancient heresies and systems of doctrine. He revolutionized 
the history of apostolic and post-apostolic Christianity, and resolved its 
rich spiritual life of faith and love into an intellectual process of conflicting 
tendencies, which started from an antagonism of Petrinism and Paulinism, 
and were ultimately reconciled in the compromise of ancient Catholicism. 
He applied the Hegelian conception of a dialectical process of thesis, anti- 
thesis, and synthesis to primitive Christianity ; but he overstated the con- 
flict of Peter and Paul, who were agreed in principle, and he put all but 
four of Paul's epistles into the post-apostolic age of reconciliation. He 
fully brought to light, by a keen critical analysis, the profound intellectual 
fermentation of the primitive Church, but eliminated from it the super- 
natural and miraculous element ; yet as an honest and earnest skeptic he 
admitted at last a psychological miracle in the conversion of St. Paul, and 
bowed before the greater miracle of the resurrection of Christ, without 
which the former is an inexplicable enigma. A most important concession. 
His critical researches and speculations gave a powerful stimulus to a 
reconsideration and modification of the traditional views on early Chris- 
tianity ; but the Tubingen school had to abandon some of his positions, 
and is now superseded by the more positive school of Eitschl and Harnack. 

The Church History of Carl Rudolph Hagenbach (Professor in Basel, 
d. 1874 ; published at Leipzig, 1873, 7 vols. ; revised ed. by Nippold, 1885 

* The section on American Church History (vol. v., pp. 370 sqq.) is 
omitted in the translation, as it betrays so much ignorance and prejudice 
that it would diminish the just respect for his great learning and good 
judgment in the body of the work. See above, pp. 293 sq. 



HISTORIANS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 303 

sqq. ) is a well-written, popular, yet scholarly digest for the educated lay 
reader in the irenic, evangelical, catholic spirit of Neander, and gives also 
due attention to ecclesiastical poetry and art. His history of the Reforma- 
tion has been translated into English by Miss Eveline Moore (Edinburgh, 
1878, 2 vols.), and his history of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries 
by Bishop Hurst (New York, 1869, 2 vols.). 

Karl Hase (Professor at Jena) began to publish his Lectures on Church 
History in 1885, when death interrupted him at the age of ninety (Jan. 3, 
1890), but the second and third vols, were edited by Dr. Kriiger (Leipzig, 
1892). They are an expansion of his Manual. Hase was an amiable and 
most accomplished scholar, a master of elegant, clear, pithy historiography, 
with kindly sympathy for all that is great, good, and beautiful, and with 
cultivated taste for the poetry of religion. 

To Hase and to Hagenbach belongs the merit of having introduced 
Church History into general literature and made it interesting to the cul- 
tivated laity. Their works should be translated or reproduced in English. 

George Waddington (Dean of Durham, d. 1869) prepared three vol- 
umes on the history of the Church before the Reformation (London, 1835), 
and three volumes on the Continental Reformation (1841), in the spirit of 
evangelical and liberal Anglicanism. 

James Craigie Robertson (Canon of Canterbury and Professor of 
Church History in King's College, d. 1882) brings his History of the Christian 
Church from the apostolic age down to the beginning of the Reformation 
(64-1517). The work was first published in four octavo vols. (1854 sqq.), 
and then in eight duodecimo vols. (London, 1874), and is the best, as it is 
the latest, general Church History written by an Episcopalian. It deserves 
praise for its candor, moderation, and careful indication of authorities. 

Etiexne L. Chastel (a descendant of the Huguenots, Professor of Church 
History in the National Church at Geneva, d. 1886) : Histoire clu Christian- 
isme depuis son origine jusqu' a nos jours (Paris, 1881-85, 5 vols.) An able 
work, influenced by Neander. 

Philip Schafp (Professor of Church History in New York) : History of the 
Christian Church (New York and Edinburgh, 1859 sqq., 5th ed. revised and 
enlarged, 1889-92, 7 vols. Vol. v. is not yet completed. The first three 
vols, appeared also in German, Leipzig, 1868, but are superseded by the 
later English revisions). The work so far comes down to the close of the 
sixteenth century, and will be continued. It is written from the Anglo- 
German and Anglo-American standpoint, and brings the past in living 
contact with the present. 

(2) Roman Catholic historians. 

Count Stolberg (a convert, d. 1819) : Geschichte der Religion Jesu Christi, 
to A.D. 430 (1806-18, 15 vols.) ; continued by Kerz and Brischar to 1245 
(1825-64, 38 vols.). This work is nearly as extensive as the Annals of 
Baronius, and marks the beginning of the Roman Catholic revival in Ger- 
many, but has no critical value.* 

* Hase (L, 56) thus happily characterizes Stolberg: " Dem Gbttinger 
Dichterbund angehorig mit Hblty und Yoss unter Klopstock's Patronat, dawn 
mit Goethe hat er ein Stuck Jugend in iibersprudelnder Kraft durchlebt, bis die 
aristokratische Natur durcJibrach, welche im Mittelalter Hire Ideale fand, bei 
weiblicher Sehnsucht nach Fesseln. Er hat der katholischen Kirche sein 



304 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

J. Adam Moehler (d. 1838) : Kirchengeschichte, published after his 
death by Gams, Regensburg (1868, 3 vols.). It is very unequal, and lacks 
the author's own finish. 

J. J. Dollinger (since 1870 an Old Catholic, and excommunicated, d. 
1891): Manual of Church History till 1517 (2d ed. 1843, 2 vols.). English 
translation by Dr. Edward Cox, London (1840-42, 4 vols.). Dollinger was 
regarded in the Roman Church before he opposed the Vatican Council and 
the dogma of papal infallibility as the most learned Church historian. 

Abbe Rohrbacher (Professor of Church History at Nancy, d. 1856) wrote 
an extensive Histoire universelle de VJfiglise catholique, including that of the 
Old Testament, down to 1848 (Nancy and Paris, 1842-49, 29 vols. ; 4th eel. 
by Chantral, 1864 sqq.). A free German translation byHulskamp, Rump, 
and others appeared at Miinster, 1860 sqq. He is less liberal than the 
great Gallican writers of the seventeenth century. 

Darras Bareille and Fevre : Histoire de Vfiglise (Paris, 1861-88, 44 
vols.). According to Dr. Funk, who is himself a Roman Catholic historian, 
this extensive work is still more behind the age than Rohrbacher's. 



CHAPTER CLXXXVI. 

MANUALS, TEXT-BOOKS, AND TABLES OF GENERAL CHURCH 

HISTORY. 

Most of the recent Manuals of Church History have been written by 
German Protestants, because Church History is more thoroughly studied 
in the universities of Germany than elsewhere. 

(1) Protestant Manuals : 

* Hase (Prof, in Jena, d. 1891), 11th ed. 1886 (a masterly miniature 
picture). — Niedner (Prof, in Berlin, d. 1865), 1866 (very learned and very 
heavy). — Guericke (Prof, in Halle, d. 1878), 9th ed. 1866 (high Lutheran, 
contracted in spirit and involved in style) ; freely translated, in part, by Dr. 
Shedd.— Ebrard (Prof, in Erlangen, d. 1888), 1865-67, 4 vols. (Reformed 
and polemical). — * Kurtz (Prof, in Dorpat, d. at Marburg, 1889), 13th ed. 
1892, 2 vols. ; translated from the 9th and partly from the 10th ed. by 
J. Macpherson, 1888-90, 3 vols, (evangelical Lutheran, more liberal in the 
later edd.). — Hasse (Prof, in Bonn, d. 1862), 1864 (posthumous). — Herzog 
(Prof, in Erlangen, d. 1884), 1880-82, 3 vols., 2d ed. by Koffmane (evan- 
gelical Reformed). — H. Schmid (Prof, in Erlangen, d. 1885), 1881, 2 vols. 
(Lutheran).— * WilhElm Moeller (Prof, in Kiel, d. 1891), 1891, 2 vols. 

warmes Herz und seine protestantische Bildung gebracht. Als er zu den Fils- 
zen des Papstes den Frieden gefunden, hat er mehr mit dem Enthusiasmus des 
frommen Dichters als mit dem Ernste des besonnenen Gesehichtschreibers die 
alttestamentliche Geschichte, die er nicht verstand, und die Geschichte des 
kirchlichen Alterthums, die er so eben ler?ite, geschrieben. Es war doch von 
grosser Wirkung; ahnlich wie Baronius stand Stolberg einer neuen Weltbild- 
ung gegeniiber, man erfuhr, dass audi die moderne Bildung zur Verherrlich- 
ung der katholischen Kirche zu brauchen sei, und der Katholicismus fasste 
wieder Vertrauen zu seiner Vorzeit." 



HINTS FOR THE STUDY OF CHURCH HISTORY. 305 

(the first vol. translated by A. Rutherford, 1892). — * K. Muller (Prof, in 
Breslau, School of Ritschl), 1892 sq., 2 vols. 

Hard wick (Anglican, d. 1859), 1853 ; 3d ed. by Stubbs, 1873, 2 vols. ; one 
on the Middle Ages and one on the Reformation. — Philip Smith, London 
and New York, 1881 and 1885, 2 vols, to the Reformation, with illustra- 
tions (vol. i. largely extracted from Schaff). — * G. P. Fisher (Prof, in Yale 
University), New York, 1887.— John F. Hurst, New York, 1893. 

(2) Roman Catholic Manuals : 

Ritter, 6th ed. 1862.—* Alzog (Prof, in Freiburg, d. 1878), 10th ed. 
by Kraus, 1882, 2 vols. ; English translation, Cincinnati, 1874, in 3 vols. 
— * Joseph Hergenrother (Cardinal, d. in Rome, 1890) : Handbuch der 
allgemeinen Kirchengeschichte, 3d ed. Freiburg, 1884, 3 vols. — Bruck, 4th ed., 
1888. — * Kraus (successor of Alzog in Freiburg), 3d ed. 1887. — * Funk (suc- 
cessor of Hefele in Tubingen), 2d ed. 1890, 1 vol. (liberal but too brief). 

(3) Greek Orthodox Manuals : 

Philaret Bapheides (Prof, of Church History in Chalce) : 'EK/cTinaiacTiKJ) 
'loTopia. Constantinople, vols. i. and ii., 1884 and 1886. Extends to the 
fall of Constantinople, 1453. Bapheides is the successor of Bryennios (the 
discoverer of the Didache), and, like him, is well acquainted with German 
Protestant literature. 

Another compend of Church History in Greek by Diomedes Kyriakos 
appeared at Athens, 1881, in 2 vols. 

(4) Chronological Tables : 

Weingarten : Zeittafeln, Berlin, 3d ed. 1874. — H. B. Smith : History of 
the Church of Christ in Sixteen Chronological Tables, New York, 1860 (the 
best, but too large in size for convenient use). — F. X. Kraus (Roman Cath- 
olic Professor, first in Strassburg, then at Freiburg, i. B.) : Synchronistische 
Tabellen zur Kirchengeschichte, Trier, 1876 ; and Synchronistische Tabellen 
zur christlichen Kunstgeschichte, Freiburg, 1880. 

(5) Historical Atlases have been mentioned in Chapter CXLVIIL, p. 243. 



CHAPTER CLXXXVIL 

HINTS FOR THE STUDY OF CHURCH HISTORY. 

1. The study of Church History, like that of the Bible, should 
run through the whole course, instead of being made an appen- 
dix, as is the case in many theological seminaries. 

2. Church History and the Bible are the training-school for 
forming theological opinions. Facts should control dogmas, 
and not vice versa. 

3. God made history, and not man, and man could not make 
it any better. Our business is humbly to learn, and to adore 
Providence even in its darkest chapters. What we cannot 
understand now we shall understand hereafter. 

4. Impress on the memory and imagination a general chrono- 



306 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

logical map of the leading epochs, dates, events, and personal- 
ities of history, with the help of the latest and best manuals, 
tables, and atlases. 

5. Study first and last Biblical history, especially the Life of 
Christ and the Apostolic Age, which are of perennial interest, 
ever fresh and ever new, and must regulate the Church in all 
ages. 

6. Study next the Reformation history, which is the fountain 
of modern history. 

7. Then the history of your own country and denomination 
in which you expect to labor. 

8. Select one particular period or department for exhaustive 
study, and cultivate it as your favorite field. 

9. Aim always, first and last, at an accurate knowledge of the 
facts and truth. 

10. Study Church History not only for instruction, but also 
for warning and encouragement to work for the kingdom of 
God in the sphere to which God has assigned you. 

11. The most useful manuals are those of Hase, Kurtz, 
Muller, and Fisher. The first three give the literature in 
the respective sections ; Fisher is the best guide for recent Eng- 
lish and American Church History, which is very imperfectly 
treated in German works, although there is a steady improve- 
ment in the more recent editions. For an advanced study, 
Gieseler and Neander are recommended, but need supplement- 
ing, especially in the Ante-Nicene age. 

12. Church History may be profitably introduced into the 
pulpit and lecture-room by a series of sketches of great and 
good men, as Abraham and faith ; Moses and the law ; Isaiah 
and the promise ; Peter the Confessor ; Paul the Missionary ; 
John the Seer ; Polycarp the Martyr • Justin Martyr the Apol- 
ogist ; Tertullian the Polemic ; Origen and Christian scholar- 
ship ; Athanasius and the divinity of Christ ; Augustin and 
Christian experience ; Chrysostom and the pulpit ; Hildebrand 
and the papacy ; St. Bernard and monasticism ; Columbus and 
tiie Discovery of America ; Erasmus and the Greek Testament ; 
Luther and justification by faith ; Calvin and election by grace ; 
Wesley and revival ; Zinzendorf and heathen missions ; Living- 
stone and darkest Africa ; the Salvation Army and darkest 
England. 



BOOK IV. 

SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 



CHAPTER CLXXXVIII. 

GENERAL CONCEPTION. 

Systematic Theology represents the Christian religion as a 
scientific system. It derives its material from three sources : 
the Bible, the Church, and Christian experience. It arranges 
the material so as to form an organic whole, and adjusts it to 
the prevailing spirit of the Church and the existing state of 
philosophic and scientific culture. In its method it is often 
more or less influenced by the current philosophy, but it may 
and ought to be independent in spirit and aim. 

Christianity is not systematic as to outward form, any more 
than nature is a system of natural science and natural philoso- 
phy. It is a divine revelation, a series of supernatural truths 
and facts ; it is spirit and life, and has the freshness and direct- 
ness of life. But its truths and facts are all consistent with 
each other and constitute together a beautiful organism. It is 
the business of the systematic theologian to bring out the unity, 
harmony and completeness of the revealed religion. 

Systematic Theology may also be called Philosophical, or bet- 
ter, Speculative Theology, because it aims to show the reason- 
ableness of the Christian religion and brings it into contact 
with the scientific thinking of the age. 

CHAPTER CLXXXIX. 

DEPARTMENTS OF SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

Systematic Theology embraces : 

1. Christian Apologetic. 2. Biblical Theology. 3. Christian 
Dogmatic. 4. Christian Symbolic. 5. Christian Polemic and 

307 



308 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Irenic. 6. Christian Ethic. 7. Ecclesiastical Geography and 
Statistic. 8. Formal Encyclopaedia. 

Apologetic is a vindication of Christianity against it's oppo- 
nents. Biblical Theology is a systematic view of the teaching 
of the Scriptures. Dogmatic is an exposition of the doctrines 
of Christianity. Symbolic is comparative Dogmatic. Polemic 
is directed against false conceptions of Christianity and internal 
controversies. Irenic seeks a higher unity above the dogmatic 
differences, or the concord in the discord of creeds. Polemic 
and Irenic may as well be combined with Symbolic. Ethic is 
the theory of Christian life. Ecclesiastical Geography and 
Statistic is a description of the social status of the Christian 
world. Encyclopaedia is an outline of all the theological sci- 
ences in their unity and mutual relations. This is substan- 
tially the same with Propaedeutic, but gives also an outline of 
the contents. 

Schleiermacher and Rothe comprise Systematic Theology 
under Historical Theology, except Apologetic and Polemic, 
which Schleiermacher assigns to Philosophic Theology, while 
Rothe assigns Ethic and Apologetic to what he calls Specula- 
tive Theology, and Polemic to Practical Theology. 



FIRST SECTION: APOLOGETIC, OR EVIDENCES OF 

CHRISTIANITY. 



CHAPTER CXC. 

IDEA AND AIM OF APOLOGETIC. 

Apologetic or Apologetic Theology is the proper scientific 
term for what is popularly called " Evidences of Christianity." 

It means a self -vindication of the Christian religion against 
the attacks of its enemies. It aims to prove the divine origin 
and character of Christianity, as the perfect religion for the 
whole human race. 

Hence Apologetic must take the first place (in order, though 
not in importance) among the branches of Systematic Theology. 
It lays the foundation for all the rest. 

It is closely connected with Philosophy of Religion, and 
forms, together with Dogmatic and Ethic, the connecting link 
between Philosophy and Theology. 

Notes. 

Apologetic is from dnoloyia, apologia, a defense or a discourse in de- 
fense of some person or doctrine or cause which has been assailed or mis- 
represented. It has the claim of priority over other terms. The earliest 
defenses of the Christian faith by Justin Martyr, Tertullian, etc., were 
called Apologia, Apologeticus, and the writers are called Apologists. The 
theological use of apology must be carefully distinguished from the popular 
English use of the term, which makes it equivalent to an excuse, and im- 
plies weakness and censurableness of the person or thing excused. The 
existence of apologies of Christianity presupposes simply the fact of its 
being assailed, and its readiness and ability to defend itself. Some 
German writers distinguish between Apology, a popular defense, and 
Apologetic, a scientific or learned defense. So Stirm, who calls his valu- 
able popular work : Apologie des Christenthums fur gebildete Leser (Stuttg., 
2d. ed. 1856). 

Schleiermacher makes Apologetic the first in the order of the theological 
sciences. But Christianity cannot be defended before it is made known 
from the Bible and Church History. 

309 



310 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

CHAPTER CXCI. 

NECESSITY OF APOLOGETIC. 

Apologetic is chronologically the oldest branch of Christian 
theology. It was called forth by the attacks of Jews and Gen- 
tiles to which Christianity was exposed at its first appearance 
(comp. Luke 2 : 34). In more recent times it is required by the 
assaults of skepticism, and infidelity within the Church. Chris- 
tians should be " ready always to give answer * to every man 
that asketh them a reason concerning the hope that is in them, 
yet with meekness and fear, having a good conscience " (I. Peter 
3 : 15). 

Apologetic has also an inward necessity. It arises from the 
impulse of the Christian faith to justify itself before the tri- 
bunal of our own reason and to arrive at a clear insight into 
the grounds on which its convictions are based. Even if idol- 
atry and infidelity should entirely disappear, there would still 
be room for Apologetic to satisfy the mind of believers. It is 
an integral part of theology as a science. 

The attacks upon Christianity may proceed either from rival 
religions, as Judaism, heathenism, Mohammedanism- or from 
the various forms of infidelity within the Church, as Deism, 
Rationalism, Pantheism, Atheism, Materialism, Agnosticism. 
The former attacks have long since been overcome, or have 
ceased to be formidable ; the latter are still going on and will 
continue to the end of time. In this world the Church will 
always be a militant body. Error assumes ever new shapes 
and forms, and must be met in all its varieties. Every age 
must produce its own apologies adapted to prevailing tenden- 
cies and wants. 

The principal objections to Christianity are in substance 
always the same, and have been often refuted. Celsus, Por- 
phyry and Julian have anticipated the most plausible argu- 
ments of modern Deists and Rationalists. 

On the other hand, the chief arguments for Christianity are 
also the same now as they were in the first and second centu- 
ries. Justin Martyr, Origen and Tertullian already urged with 

* Literally : for apology, kroijioi del itpbg dwoTioyiav. 



LIMITS OF APOLOGETIC. 311 

great freshness and force the arguments from prophecy and 
types, from miracles, from the rapid spread of Christianity 
amidst persecution, from its moral fruits, its reasonableness, 
and its general adaptation to all classes and conditions of man j 
in short, all the more important external and internal evidences, 
which reappear in every modern Apology, and will retain their 
convincing force to the end of the world. 

But the evidences change in force and importance according 
to the wants of the times and modes of attack. At present the 
internal and moral evidences are of far greater weight than the 
external evidences of prophecies and miracles. It is now better 
understood than ever before that the best argument for Chris- 
tianity is Christ himself. 

While error grows weaker with every defeat, truth grows 
stronger with every victory. If it were not for the obstinacy 
of the human heart, and the fact that infidelity borrows its best 
weapons from Christian civilization, it would have disappeared 
long ago. 

CHAPTER CXCII. 

LIMITS OF APOLOGETIC. 

Apologetic is confined to a discussion of the fundamental 
claim of Christianity — that is, to the proof that it is the final 
and perfect religion of Grod for all men. It does not enter into 
the several doctrines of Christianity, nor into denominational 
differences. 

In the general defense of Christianity we ask not for the 
church relations of the apologist, but stand on common ground 
against the common enemy. Unitarians, like Priestly, Channing 
and Martineau, as well as Roman Catholics, have written excel- 
lent works in defense of Christianity. Apologetic is polemical 
only against outsiders and unbelievers, and stops at the outer 
court of the temple. To extend it to internal controversies is 
to confound it with other branches of Systematic Theology, and 
to anticipate discussions which properly belong to Dogmatic, 
Symbolic and Polemic, or to the historical criticism and defense 
of the Bible. 

At the same time there is room for popular apologetic works 
of a more extended range, as well as for special discussions of 



312 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

particular objections to Christianity. Every doctrine of the 
gospel may be assailed or misrepresented and is capable of an 
apologetic or polemical treatment. We only wish to guard the 
boundary lines of the theological sciences and to prevent inter- 
ference and repetition. 

CHAPTER CXCIII. 

VALUE AND USE OP APOLOGETIC. 

The value of Apologetic is not so much the conversion of in- 
fidels, who seldom read theological books. The Roman emper- 
ors and provincial governors to whom the Apologies of Justin 
Martyr and other fathers were addressed probably never saw 
a copy of them. Infidelity strikes its roots in the heart and 
the will rather than in the intellect* 

The Christian system is far more rational than any other 
religion or system of philosophy, and needs not fear the closest 
scrutiny. It is the most satisfactory solution of the problems 
of life. If many difficulties still remain, they are such as can 
as little be solved by philosophy. Christianity numbers among 
its adherents the greatest intellects and profoundest thinkers 
from St. Paul, Origen and Augustin down to Luther, Calvin, 
Pascal, Bossuet, Dante, Shakespeare, Milton, Bacon, Newton, 
Kepler, Leibnitz, Schleiermacher, Schelling, Tennyson, Glad- 
stone, and many others, before whom the stars of infidelity 
dwindle into obscurity. 

Conversion begins with a sense of sin and the need of re- 
demption. With the humility and trust of little children must 
we enter the kingdom of heaven. All honest doubters, like 
Thomas, who sincerely seek after truth and long for salvation, 
may be materially aided by apologetic discussions ; but proud 
and self-righteous Pharisees and frivolous Sadducees cannot be 
converted by any amount of argument. 

The chief use of Apologetic is for the Church itself. It 
strengthens the faith of the believer, it gives him a clearer 
insight into the immovable foundations of his faith, and shows 
that Christianity has been equal to any emergency, has outlived 

* This is popularly expressed in the well-known lines : 

" A man convinced against his will 
Is of the same opinion still. " 



EPOCHS OF APOLOGETIC. 313 

all attacks, and grows stronger and stronger with every gen- 
eration. Every assault ends in a defeat of the assailing force 
and a new triumph of the assailed. Every new form of error 
leads to a clearer and stronger statement of the correspondent 
truth ; and so it will be to the end of time. The past of 
Christianity is sure, and insures the future. The gates of hell 
shall never prevail against the Church. It is the only possible 
religion for the civilized world, and religion is as necessary to 
society as the air we breathe. 

CHAPTER CXCIV. 

EPOCHS OF APOLOGETIC. 

The history of Apologetic may be divided into two main 
periods : 

I. Defense of Christianity against rival religions. 

I. Against Judaism. 2. Against Paganism (polytheism, idol- 
atry, GraBCO-Roman mythology). 3. Against Mohammedanism. 

These enemies have been defeated by argument long ago, 
although Judaism and Mohammedanism remain unchanged. 
Of modern forms of heathenism the only formidable rivals 
are Brahmanism, Buddhism, and the state religion of Confucius 
in China. These must be met by learned missionaries. 

II. Defense of Christianity against modern infidelity, which 
is nominally Christian and fights Christianity with the weapons 
of Christian culture. 

1. Against Deism in England. 2. Against Deism and Athe- 
ism in France. 3. Against Rationalism and Pantheism in 
Germany and other countries. 4. Against Materialism and 
Positivism. 5. Against the objections of the natural sciences 
(geology, astronomy, biology, etc.). 6. Against Agnosticism. 

The former enemies opposed to Christianity another religion 
and form of worship ; the latter would substitute for it the 
supremacy of reason and science or literary culture and hu- 
manitarianism — in one word, modern civilization, which, in 
its best elements, is itself a product of Christianity. 



314 THEOLOGICAL PROPAEDEUTIC. 

CHAPTER CXCV. 

APOLOGETIC LITERATURE. 

I. English Works. 

Joseph Butler (Bishop of Durham, d. 1752) : TJie Analogy of Religion 
Natural and Revealed to the Constitution and Course of Nature (1736, and 
very many edd., English and American). The chief philosophical work 
against English Deism. It exerted and still exerts a great influence among 
English-speaking people, but is little known on the Continent. Butler 
vindicates the Christian religion by analogical evidence from the beautiful 
harmony of the system of nature and the system of revelation. His argu- 
ment is negative and probable rather than positive and demonstrative, and 
hence better calculated to silence objections than to establish truth ; yet 
in its total effect it carries strong conviction to the mind. 

Nath. Lardner (a Presbyterian, leaning to Arianism, d. 1768) : Credi- 
bility of the Gospel History (1727-57) and Collection of Ancient Jewish and 
Heathen Testimonies (1764-67). The most learned historical work against 
Deism, and a storehouse of external evidences of the Gospels. 

William Paley (Archdeacon of Carlisle, d. 1805) : Evidences of Chris- 
tianity (1794, many edd.) ; Natural Tlieology (1802). Against Deism. His 
Horw Paulinas (1790) show the credibility of the Acts from undesigned 
coincidences in the Acts and the Epistles of Paul. 

Adam Storey Farrar (Canon and Professor in the University of Dur- 
ham) : Critical History of Free TJiougJit, Bampton Lectures for 1862. 

Horace Bushnell (Congregational minister at Hartford, Conn., d. 
1876) : Nature and the Supernatural as together Constituting the One System 
of God (New York, 1858). The work of an original genius. 

James McCosh (late President of Princeton College) : Hie Supernatural 
in Relation to the Natural (New York, 1862). 

* George P. Fisher (Professor of Church History in Yale University) : 
TJie Grounds of Theistic and Christian Belief (New York, 1883). 

Richard S. Storrs (Congregational minister in Brooklyn) : TJie Divine 
Origin of Christianity indicated by its Historical Effects, Ely Lectures in 
Union Theological Seminary (New York, 1884). 

Lewis French Stearns (Professor of Theology at Bangor, Me., d. 
1892) : TJie Evidences of Christian Experience, Ely Lectures for 1890 (New 
York, 1890). 

* Alexander B. Bruce (Professor of Apologetics in Glasgow) : Apolo- 
getics; or, CJiristianity defensively stated (Edinb. and New York, 1892). He 
concludes his work (p. 514) as follows: "In the foregoing pages the au- 
thority of Christ has been exalted above that of all other claimants. But it 
has not been set in antagonism to any legitimate authority. Christ's atti- 
tude is not one of zealous antagonism, but of grand comprehension. His 
teaching sums up and crowns the best thought of the wise in all ages 
and lands. It is throughout in affinity with reason. The just, wholesome 
authority of the Church depends on the measure in which Christ's spirit 
dwells in her. ' The testimony of Jesus is the spirit of prophecy.' There- 



APOLOGETIC LITERATURE. 315 

fore Christianity is the absolute religion. It is indeed, God's final word to 
men. On the simple principle of the survival of the fittest, it is destined 
to perpetuity and to ultimate universality." 

G. M. Mead (Professor in Hartford, Conn.): Supernatural Revelation: 
An Essay concerning the Basis of the Christian Faith (New York, 1889). 

Small but useful Manuals of Christian Evidences, by C. A. Rowe (Lon- 
don, 1887), and G. P. Fisher (New York, 1892). 

The Bampton Lectures, a series of eight lectures or sermons, annually 
delivered at the University of Oxford since 1780, instituted by John Bamp- 
ton, Canon of Salisbury. 

The Ely Lectures, and Morse Lectures of the Union Theological 
Seminary, New York, since 1866. 

II. German Works. 

Chr. E. Luthardt : Apologetische Yortrdge iiber die Grundtcahrheiten 
des Chr istetith urns (Leipzig, 1864; 10th ed. 1883; Engl, transl., The Funda- 
mental Truths of Christianity, Edinb., 1865; 6th ed. 1885). Die modernen 
Weltanschauung en und Hire praktischen Konsequenzen (Leipzig, 1880 ; 3d 
ed. 1892). Against Rationalism, Pantheism, Materialism and Pessimism. 

J. H. A. Ebrard (d. at Erlangen, 1888) : Apologetik (Giitersloh, 1874 sq., 
2 vols. ; 2d ed. 1878-81 ; English translation by W. Stuart and J. Macpher- 
son, Edinburgh, 1887, 2 vols.). 

Theodor Christlieb (Professor in Bonn, d. 1889) : Moderne Zweifel am 
christlichen Glauben (2d ed. Bonn, 1870 ; English translation, Edinburgh and 
New York, 5th ed. 1885). Compare his The Best Methods of Counteracting 
Modern Infidelity, a paper read before the Sixth General Conference of the 
Evangelical Alliance, held in New York, 1873 (New York, 1874). This was 
the most popular paper read in that Conference, and was translated into 
several languages. 

Ch. Ernst Baumstark : Christliche ApologetiJc auf anthropologischer 
Grundlage (Frankf., 1872-89, 3 vols.). 

J. Kaftan : Die Wahrheit der christlichen Religion (Basel, 1888). 

Franz Hettinger (Eoman Catholic Professor at Wiirzburg, d. 1890) : 
Apologie des Christenthums (Freiburg, i. B., 1863-67; 6th ed., in 5 parts, 
1886). Lehrbuch der Fundamental-Tlieologie oder Apologetik (Freiburg, 1879, 
2 vols. ; 2d. ed. 1888). An able and learned defense both of Christianity 
and of the Roman Church. 

P. Schanz (Roman Catholic Professor at Tubingen) : Apologie des Chris- 
tenthums (Freiburg, i. B., 1887-88, 3 vols.). 

Der Betceis des Glaubens (Giitersloh, 1864 sqq.). An Apologetic Monthly, 
edited by Zockler and Grau. 



SECOND SECTION: BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 



CHAPTER CXCVI. 

NATURE AND OBJECT OF BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 

Biblical Theology, in its modern technical sense, is a syste- 
matic representation of the revealed or biblical religion in its 
primitive form, as laid down in the canonical books of the Old 
and New Testaments, and as distinct from its subsequent 
development and comprehension in different ages and branches 
of the Church. 

The Bible itself is no more a system of theology than nature 
is a system of natural philosophy or natural science, but it con- 
tains all the facts and truths which make up such a system. 

Biblical Theology embraces both Dogmatic and Ethic, which 
form an organic unit in the Bible, but they may be separately 
treated. 

It must have frequent reference to the history of revelation, 
especially in the Old Testament, which teaches doctrine mostly 
in the form of example ; yet the history proper should be left 
to Historical Theology (History of Israel, Life of Christ, His- 
tory of the Apostolic Church). 

Biblical Theology sums up the scattered results of exegesis 
and arranges them so as to exhibit the organic unity and com- 
pleteness of revealed religion. Notwithstanding the great 
variety of its authors, topics, styles of composition and modes 
of representation, the Bible contains a harmonious, self-con- 
sistent system of divine truth. It stands alone in this respect 
in the entire history of literature. 

But we must distinguish different stages in the revelation of 
this truth, and different types of teaching. God revealed him- 
self, like a wise educator, in condescending adaptation to man's 

316 



CONNECTION OF BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 317 

expanding wants and capacities. The germ of salvation lies 
already in the first promise (Gen. 3 : 15), the rich frnit appeared 
in the death and resurrection of Christ. Moreover, the same 
revealed trnth reflects itself differently in different minds and 
is expressed in different styles. Inspiration mnst not be con- 
founded with dictation. The various talents which God has 
distributed among men are not abolished or suspended by 
inspiration, but purified, invigorated, ennobled and elevated to 
the highest degree of usefulness. Every prophet of the Old 
Testament has his peculiar style and temperament. In the 
New Testament every Gospel is aimed at a particular class of 
readers — Matthew to Jews, Mark to Romans, Luke to Greeks, 
John to mature Christians — and reflects the same Christ under 
a special aspect, as the Messiah, or the great Conqueror, or the 
healing Physician, or the incarnate Son of God. In the Epistles 
we may discern four distinct types of doctrine, of James, Peter, 
Paul and John. 



CHAPTER CXCVII. 

CONNECTION OF BIBLICAL THEOLOGY WITH OTHER BRANCHES. 

Biblical Theology is the connecting link between Exegesis, 
Church History, and Systematic Theology. Inasmuch as it has 
to do only with the teaching of the Bible and derives all its 
matter from the Bible, it belongs to the exegetical department ; 
but its comprehensive systematic form and method connect it 
more naturally with Systematic Divinity, especially with Dog- 
matic and Ethic. It is also the starting-point of the doctrinal 
section of Church History ; for in the Bible are contained the 
vital truths which were subsequently discussed, opposed, per- 
verted, defended, defined and reduced to dogmas by the doctors 
and councils of the Church. 

Biblical Theology then is both exegetico-systematic and 
exegetico-historical. It is the first and fundamental form of 
Didactic Theology, on which ecclesiastical and philosophical 
Dogmatic and Ethic must rest throughout. 

It is neither apologetic nor polemic, but objective and im- 
partial ; yet not on that account cold or indifferent. He who 
would fairly exhibit the teaching of the Bible, must sympathize 
with its spirit and aim. 



318 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

CHAPTER CXCVIII. 

IMPORTANCE OF BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 

Biblical Theology should be the guiding star in all depart- 
ments of sacred learning, "a focus of light in theological 
study. 7 ' It refreshes, fructifies, directs and rectifies dogmatic 
and moral theology by leading them back to the fountain-head 
of revealed truth. It brings us face to face with the divine 
oracles in all their original power and freshness. It contains 
the living roots of all sound tendencies and developments in 
the history of Christianity, and furnishes a standard for the 
proper estimate of theological schools and parties, as well as for 
a correction of errors. 

In the periods of scholastic theology, during the Middle Ages 
and in the seventeenth century, the Bible was subjected to 
dogma, and furnished merely proof -texts for a preconceived 
system of doctrine, whether Roman Catholic, or Lutheran, or 
Calvinistic. The proofs were taken from any book without 
discrimination or regard to the connection and the progressive 
periods of revelation. A passage from Job or Chronicles was 
deemed as conclusive as a passage from John or Romans. The 
Westminster Assembly first sent the Westminster Confession 
of Faith to Parliament (in 1647) without any Scripture proofs, 
but added them afterwards, by express direction of Parliament, 
"that the texts of Scripture be printed with the Articles of 
Faith. 77 

The normal way is to make the Bible the basis of dogma. 
It is of far more consequence to know the exact teaching of 
Christ and the Apostles than that of the Fathers, Reformers 
and Councils. 

In the age of the Reformation the zeal for Biblical Theology 
asserted its supremacy over mediaeval scholasticism, and pro- 
duced such works as Melanchthon 7 s Loci Theologici and Calvin 7 s 
Institiitio Christians ReMgionis. In our age Biblical Theology 
again claims the supremacy over Confessional and Speculative 
Theology, and will give rise to new systems of greater depth 
and wider breadth than those which have preceded them. 

Note. — The growing sense of the importance of Biblical Theology has 
led to the establishment of special chairs in two or three of our theological 



DIVISION AND METHOD. 319 

seminaries. One of them has already become famous and, we may say, 
historic. Dr. Charles Butler, the only surviving founder of the Union 
Seminary in New York, endowed such a chair in 1890 by the munificent 
gift of one hundred thousand dollars, in honor of his friend, the late Dr. 
Edward Robinson, the pioneer of Palestine exploration and biblical scholar- 
ship in America, and one of the first professors of that institution. Dr. 
Charles A. Briggs, as the first incumbent of the "Edward Eobinson Chair 
of Biblical Theology," delivered, on January 20, 1891, an inaugural address 
on Tlie Authority of Holy Scripture (published by Charles Scribner's Sons), 
which created an exceptional sensation, and led to the most important 
heresy trial in America. His transfer to that chair from the chair of 
Hebrew was vetoed by the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church 
at Detroit, May, 1891, and the Presbytery of New York, the largest in that 
denomination, tried him for unsound views on the fountains of divine 
authority (Bible, Church, and Reason), the inspiration and the (imaginary) 
' ' inerrancy of the original autographs, " the Mosaic origin of the Penta- 
teuch and higher criticism generally, and "progressive sanctification 
after death." The long trial ended in the full acquittal of Dr. Briggs, 
January 9, 1893. This was a substantial victory for freedom of investi- 
gation beyond the narrow bounds of the creeds of the seventeenth 
century. But the Committee on Prosecution intends to appeal to the 
General Assembly, which is to meet in May, 1893, and may reverse the 
decision of the Presbytery of New York. This would lead to serious con- 
sequences in the Presbyterian Church. 



CHAPTER CXCIX. 

DIVISION AND METHOD. 

Biblical Theology may embrace the entire Bible, or treat 
each Testament separately. In the latter case we have Theology 
of the Old Testament and Theology of the New Testament. 
The connected treatment brings ont more prominently the 
harmony of the two Covenants ; the separate treatment gives a 
more complete view of each Covenant in its peculiar character 
as a whole. 

The method of Biblical Theology is historico-genetic, and 
traces the truths of Revelation from the germ through the 
various stages of growth to the mature fruit. Revelation is an 
educational process by which God revealed himself gradually 
to man according to man's expanding wants and capacities.* 

The method, moreover, may differ as to the order under 

* "God having of old time spoken unto the fathers in the prophets by 
divers portions (Trohv/uepajg) and in divers manners (-ko'Kvtpo'kuq)" etc. (Heb. 
1:1; comp. 6:1). See Canon Bernard's Progress of Doctrine in the N. T. 



320 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

which the subjects are discussed. We may either divide the 
Old and the New Testament Revelation into distinct periods 
and treat the doctrines of each in full 5 or we may run each 
doctrine continuously through all the periods ; or finally, the 
two methods may be so combined as to present first a general 
sketch of the distinctive religious character of the several pe- 
riods, and then a special history of the various doctrines sys- 
tematically arranged in accordance with their prominence and 
mutual connection. 



CHAPTER CC. 

THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 
(Compare Chapter CXXVI. , p. 197.) 

The two Testaments or Covenants sustain to each other a 
relation of unity and a relation of difference. They are one in 
the idea of revelation and the idea of covenant. They emanate 
from the same God, they record the same plan of salvation, 
and aim at the same holiness and eternal happiness of men by 
communion with God. There is not a single doctrine or pre- 
cept in the New Testament which has not its germ and root 
in the Old. There is not a doctrine or precept in the Old 
Testament which is not set in a much clearer light and brought 
to perfection in the New. But they differ as the Old and the 
New, as different degrees in the progressive development of 
Revelation and the history of redemption. 

The Old Testament is the preparation for the New, the New 
is the fulfillment of the Old. Judaism is the cradle of Chris- 
tianity, and points prophetically and typically to it as its proper 
meaning and end. The Old Testament is the dispensation of 
the law, the New Testament is the dispensation of the gospel. 
The one is the prophecy, the other the accomplishment, of 
salvation. Yet there is gospel or promise and comfort also in 
the Old Covenant, as there is law in the New. Even the law 
implies the promise of divine grace, without which it would be 
a cruel irony. The New is the key that unlocks all the mys- 
teries of the Old. The one is unintelligible without the other. 
Both relations are comprehended in the declaration of our 
Lord that he came, not to destroy, but to fufill the law and the 
prophets. 



THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 321 

This twofold relation is taught in the Bible itself. The Old 
Testament, on the one hand, regards the plan of salvation and 
the kingdom of God revealed therein as embracing all times 
and nations (Gen. 12 : 3 ; 18 : 18 j 26 : 4 ; Num. 14 : 21 ; Isa. 
45 : 23 ; 54 : 10 ; Ps. 22 : 27 ; 86 : 9 ; Mai. 1 : 11) ; on the other, it 
acknowledges its own transitory character and prophesies a new 
covenant of the heart and spirit, as distinct from the covenant 
of the flesh and letter (Jer. 31 : 31-33 ; Ezek. 37 : 26-28 ; Heb. 
8 : 6-13 5 10 : 9). The whole religion of the Old Testament 
culminates in the Messianic hopes and prophecies ; and its 
genius is best represented by John the Baptist, who was willing 
to decrease that Christ might increase (John 3 : 30). The New 
Testament continually refers to the Old as an unbroken testi- 
mony to Christ and his salvation (John 5 : 46, and in many other 
passages) ; but just as clearly it asserts its own superiority and 
represents the law as a schoolmaster to lead men to Christ, as 
a shadow of the substance of the gospel, as a beggarly religion 
(Gal. 3 : 24 sq. 5 4 : 9 ; Col. 2 : 17 ; Heb. 10 : 1 sq., etc.), so that 
even the least in the kingdom of Christ occupies a higher posi- 
tion than the greatest saint in the Old Testament (Matt. 11 : 11). 
" The law was given by Moses, grace and truth came by Jesus 
Christ" (John 1:17). 

CHAPTER CCI. 

THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 

The Theology of the Old Covenant exhibits a comprehensive 
and connected view of the revealed religion in its growth, as 
contained in the Hebrew Scriptures ; or the development of the 
Jewish theocracy in its doctrinal and ethical features. 

The Apocryphal books of the Old Testament, being written 
after the extinction of genuine prophecy, form no part of the 
Hebrew or Palestinian canon, but are included in the Septuagint 
and the Egyptian canon, and must be either ignored, or treated 
in a separate chapter with a view to show the later develop- 
ment of Jewish theology in the period interveniDg between the 
age of Ezra and the coming of Christ. (Oehler excludes the 
Apocrypha, but Schultz, in the later editions, includes them.) 

In the history of Revelation before Christ we may distinguish 
five periods : the Primitive, before the flood ; the Patriarchal ; 
the Mosaic ; the Prophetic ; and the Post-Exilic. 



322 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

I. The Primitive or Antediluvian age, from Adam to 
Noah. (Genesis 1-12.) It includes : 

(a) The pure, childlike religion of our first parents before 
the Fall : the belief in one God as the Maker and Preserver of 
all things, the doctrine of the divine image in which man was 
created, his original communion with God in a state of inno- 
cence and holiness. 

(b) The disturbed religion after the Fall : the origin and nature 
of sin and death, the first promise of redemption (Gen. 3 : 15). 

We have then here already the fundamental elements of the 
Old Testament religion. 

II. The Patriarchal age, from Abraham to Moses. (Genesis 
12 to Exodus 20.) The age of faith and promise. A religion 
of boundless trust in the only true and living God ; the obedi- 
ence of faith. The evangelic element prevails here over the 
legalistic. Abraham "the friend of God" and "the father of 
the faithful" (Isa. 41:8; James 2:23; Rom. 4:16, 17; Gal. 
3:7). He stands at the head of the three monotheistic religions 
of the world. The covenant of circumcision. The promises 
given to the patriarchs constitute the prophetic and Messianic 
element. They include : 

(a) The land of Canaan as a perpetual possession to the 
posterity of Abraham (Gen. 17 : 8) ; while he himself dwelt 
there as a stranger (Gen. 12 : 6) and had to buy even the place 
of his burial (Gen. 23 ; comp. Acts 7 : 5). 

(b) An innumerable posterity, through the son of promise 
born according to God's counsel, and not according to the 
ordinary course of nature (comp. Rom. 4 : 16-22 ; 9:8). There 
is a distinction between Jews according to the flesh and Jews 
according to the spirit ; as there is a distinction between cir- 
cumcision of the flesh and circumcision of the heart (Rom. 
2 : 25-29 ; Col. 2 : 11). Change of the name Abram into Abra- 
ham, that is, the father of nations (Gen. 17 : 5). 

(c) A blessing to all the nations of the earth through the 
posterity of Abraham : "In thee shall all the families of the 
earth be blessed' 7 (Gen. 12 : 3 ; comp. Gal. 3: 8, 16). This is 
the Messianic part of the promise. 

The typical character of the patriarchal age : circumcision — 
baptism ; Canaan — the heavenly home ; Isaac's offering — the 
sacrifice of Christ; Melchisedek, the mysterious outsider, the 
priest-king (Heb. 7). 



THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 323 

III. The Mosaic age, from Moses to Samuel, the last of the 
Judges and the first of the Prophets, properly so called. The 
theocratic legislation began with Moses on Mount Sinai, but 
was gradually developed, and perhaps not brought into its 
final shape till the time of Ezra, the second Moses, the restorer 
of the law (B.C. 458). Israel becomes a nation and a Church 
on the basis of an act of divine mercy, the deliverance from the 
bondage of Egypt, which again is a type of the redemption 
from sin. The Ten Commandments enjoin love to G-od (first 
table) and love to man (second table), as the sum and substance 
of true religion (Ex. 20; comp. Matt. 22:38-40). Pedagogic 
and typical import of the Mosaic law : it developed the sense 
of sin and guilt and the need of atonement, and thus served 
as a schoolmaster to lead men to Christ (Rom. 3 : 20 ; 5 : 20 ; 
7:7, 13; Gal. 3:24). Clearer revelation of God as Jehovah, 
the covenant God of his people, his justice, holiness, long-suffer- 
ing, patience and mercy. The training of this people by the 
long pilgrimage through the desert, where they were alone with 
their God, away from the contaminating influences of idolatrous 
nations, and where they had to depend solely on him for tem- 
poral and spiritual blessing, for care and protection under all 
trials and dangers. 

Moses was the divinely appointed deliverer and law-giver of 
Israel and the organ of all the powers of the theocracy. In 
this view he occupies a unique position and had no successor. 
Joshua and the Judges merely carried out and defended what 
he had established. Like Abraham, he is equally revered by 
the followers of three religions. He controlled the whole 
history of Israel ; he furnished the best elements to Mohamme- 
danism ; the Decalogue as explained and fulfilled by Christ is 
the rule of Christian life and underlies all good government ; 
in the whole history of religion, he is only surpassed by Christ, 
of whom he wrote (Deut. 18 : 15 ; John 5 : 46) and for whom 
he prepared the way* 

* Heinrich Heine, an infidel Jew, "but a great genius, gives in his Con- 
fessions, written 1854 ( WerJce, vol. iv., p. 45), the following striking descrip- 
tion of Moses : " What a gigantic figure ! I cannot imagine that Og, King 
of Bash an, was greater. How small appears Mount Sinai if Moses stands 
on the top ! This mountain is only the base on which stand the feet of a 
man whose head reaches into heaven, where he speaks with God. . . . He 
took a tribe of poor shepherds and created them a people which was to defy 
the centuries, a great, eternal, holy people which was to serve as a model 
to all other nations : he created Israel ! " 



324 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

IV. The Prophetic age, from Samuel to Malachi. The 
prophetic office was organized by Samuel. Before there were 
isolated prophets, Moses himself being one of the greatest of 
prophets, who stood in constant communication with Jehovah 
and was the organ of his revelation to his people. Prophetic 
utterances are scattered through all the historical books and 
reach back to the beginning of the race (Gen. 3 : 15). But 
Samuel gave prophecy an institutional character and estab- 
lished " Schools of Prophets,' 7 which nourished two or three 
hundred years.* 

From his time on there was an almost unbroken succession 
of divinely inspired teachers called " prophets," who in connec- 
tion with, and often in opposition to, the kings and priests 
controlled the history of the theocracy during the undivided and 
the divided monarchy, the exile and the restoration under Ezra 
and Nehemiah. Sixteen of them left writings. 

The prophetic office represented the spiritual part of the 
theocracy, and the divine presence and power in the forms and 
ceremonies of religion ; it acted upon the kingly and sacerdotal 
offices ; it kept them from stagnation and degeneracy ; it stim- 
ulated the consciences of rulers and people ; it communicated 
to them the oracles of God ; it expounded the law, warned them 
of sin and danger, urged them to repentance and faith; it 
announced the judgments, but also the mercies, of God, and 
unfolded the picture of the suffering and conquering Messiah 
as the hope of Israel. 

The Messianic predictions are the flower of the prophecy. 
They culminate in Isaiah, the evangelist among the prophets, 
especially in the second part, called Deutero-Isaiah, written 
towards the close of the exile by " the Great Unknown." 

The powerful influence of the prophets may be seen in 
Nathan at the court of David, and in Elijah and Elisha in the 

* I. Sam. 8:7; 9:6, 19-27 ; 15 : 16-30 ; I. Chron. 9 : 22 ; 26 : 28 ; 29 : 29. 
Hence the phrase irdvreg 01 irpo^rjTni dird Za/uovfjli (Acts 3 : 24). There were 
prophetic schools and societies at Bamah, Bethel, G-ibeah, Gilgal, Mizpah, 
and the region of Jericho (I. Sam. 7 : 16, 17 ; 8:1, 2, etc. ; comp. II. Kings 
2:3-5; 4:38). The members were called "sons of the prophets" (bene 
hanepliiim). (I. Kings 20 : 35 ; II. Kings 2:3, 5, 7,* 15 ; 6:1; 9:1.) They 
were at times very numerous ; Obadiah concealed one hundred prophets ; 
from Jericho fifty were sent to seek Elijah (I. Kings 18 : 4 sq. ; 22 : 6 ; 
II. Kings 2:7). Of course not all pupils became really prophets, nor was 
the training by older prophets sufficient ; it required first and last a divine 
call, and divine inspiration and enthusiasm to be a real messenger of God 
and an organ of his revelation. 



THEOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 325 

kingdom of Israel. The prophets speak in the name of God, 
hence the phrase, " Tims saith the Lord/' or " Oracle of God." 
They challenge obedience to their message as the word of God. 
Even King David submitted to the rebuke of Nathan (II. Sam. 
12 : 13 sq. ; comp. 24 : 11 sq.). The prophets were statesmen as 
well as teachers and preachers, but both from the theocratic 
standpoint ; their activity referred exclusively to the kingdom 
of God, and to foreign nations only so far as they were con- 
nected with the fortunes of the people of God. They were 
watchmen on the walls of Zion, and from this their vision 
extended to the uttermost nations of the earth and the end of 
time. They were the Reformers and Puritans of the Jewish 
theocracy. 

The writings of the prophets constitute a unique body of 
literature which has no parallel among other nations, and is 
as remarkable and grand as the epistles of the New Testament. 

During the prophetic period was also developed the poetic 
literature of the Hebrews. Job is very important for the 
doctrine of God and of his providential government. The 
Psalms contain Hebrew theology in the form of devotion ; the 
Proverbs and Ecclesiastes furnish a system of ethic in the 
shape of brief sentences or maxims of practical wisdom and 
experience. 

V. The Post-Exilian period, from Ezra to John the Baptist, 
the last representative of the Old Covenant and immediate 
forerunner of Christ. The organization of the synagogue ; 
the origin of the religious sects of the Pharisees, Sadducees 
and Essenes ; the hedging of the law by the traditions of the 
elders ; the Greek Version of the Scriptures j the whole litera- 
ture of the Jewish Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha ; contact 
with Greek thought and Platonic philosophy (Philo of Alex- 
andria). 

CHAPTER CCII. 

THEOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT : THE TEACHING OF JESUS. 

In the Theology of the New Testament, we must first distin- 
guish between the Theology of Christ as derived from his teach- 
ing in the Gospels, and the Theology of the Apostles as contained 
in the Acts and Epistles. The former is the living germ of the 
latter. 



326 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC 

The teaching of Jesus is altogether unique. He was neither 
self-taught, nor school-taught, nor inspired like the prophets and 
apostles. He spoke directly out of the fullness of the indwelling 
God, as his only-begotten Son. He was not simply a witness of 
the truth, but the Truth itself, and the Light of the world. His 
teaching is a self -revelation of his divine-human person, as the 
Son of God and the Son of Man, as the Messiah and Saviour of 
the world, as the founder of the New Covenant and the Kingdom 
of Heaven upon the earth. His teaching is a reflection of his 
life, and is as free from error as his life was free from sin. It 
is the union of infallible teaching with a sinless life which raises 
him above the founders of other religions, and above all moral 
philosophers, ancient and modern. 

As Jesus himself wrote nothing, we have to depend upon the 
reports of his disciples in the canonical Gospels. 

The Synoptic teaching relates chiefly to the Kingdom of God 
and the duties of those who enter therein, and is brief, senten- 
tious, parabolic and pictorial. This style was best calculated to 
impress itself upon the heart and memory of the common people 
in Galilee. 

The Johannean discourses, which were mostly delivered in 
Jerusalem before the learned Pharisees and Scribes and in the 
private circle of his disciples, discuss the deepest mysteries of 
faith and eternal life, of the relation of the Son to the Father, 
to the world and to believers. They differ also in style, which 
strikingly agrees with that of the Johannean Epistles. They 
were evidently reproduced by the congenial mind of the be- 
loved disciple, as understood in the light of the promised illumi- 
nation of the Holy Spirit, and presented in his own language 
for the second or third generation of Christians. But no human 
genius could have invented such heavenly discourses, any more 
than the miracles of Jesus ; no honest writer could have prac- 
ticed such a deception upon his readers as the hypothesis of 
invention involves. 

On close investigation there is no material contradiction be- 
tween the Synoptic and the Johannean teaching of Christ. They 
supplement each other. It is the duty of the biblical theologian 
to show the harmony as well as the difference. 

Note. — Weiss acknowledges the Johannean Gospel discourses as genuine 
throughout, though subjectively colored. Wendt distinguishes in them 
original sayings (as the 'kbyia in Matthew) and later additions from 



THE TEACHING OF THE APOSTLES. 327 

the school of John. Beyschlag represents the Synoptic and Johannean 
teaching separately in the full conviction of the entire genuineness of the 
fourth Gospel (vol. i., pp. 212 sqq.), but he explains away the passages on the 
preexistence of Christ (John 6 : 62 ; 8 : 58 ; 17 : 4, 5, 24, and in the prologue). 
If the fourth Gospel in whole or in part were the product of an unknown 
and unknowable Christian Plato of the second century, it could not be a 
source for the teaching of Jesus, but only a record of post-apostolic tradi- 
tion, or a theological romance. This would make the Johannean problem 
more difficult and absolutely insolvable. 



CHAPTER CCIII. 

THE TEACHING OP THE APOSTLES. 

In the apostolic period three main types of doctrine may 
be distinguished, which are respectively represented by Peter, 
Paul and John, with subordinate differences in the Epistle of 
James, the Epistle to the Hebrews, and the Apocalypse. 

The Petrine type, to which also James belongs, may be called 
the Jewish Christian ; the Pauline type, the Gentile Christian • 
the Johannean type, the harmonious adjustment of the two. 
The first views Christianity predominantly in its harmony 
with the Old Testament ; the second in its distinction, its new- 
ness and independence ; the third rises above the antagonism 
of Jewish and Gentile Christians and represents a new genera- 
tion. The first was the gospel for the Jews ; the second the 
gospel for the Gentiles ; the third harmonizes the national and 
religious differences in the higher union of Christ. 

The Epistle of James, " the brother of the Lord," is probably 
the oldest of the New Testament writings and also nearest to 
the Old Testament, like the Gospel of Matthew. It represents 
the gospel itself as law, but as the "perfect law of liberty" 
(James 1 : 25), which implies that the Mosaic law was imperfect 
and a law of bondage. 

Peter is the connecting link between James and Paul, as the 
Gospel of Mark mediates between Matthew and Luke. He 
first made the confession that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son 
of the living God (Matt. 16 : 16), which is the foundation 
article of the Christian faith. He agreed with Paul in the 
principle that Jews and Gentiles alike are saved without the 
unbearable yoke of the ceremonial law, simply and solely 
" through the grace of the Lord Jesus Christ " (Acts 15 : 11) j 
and he rose to the liberal conviction that " in every nation he 



328 " THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

that fears God and works righteousness is acceptable to him " 
(Acts 10 : 35). 

Paul's fundamental idea is righteousness in Christ, appre- 
hended by faith and operative in love, in opposition to the legal 
self -righteousness of the Jews. His doctrinal system turns on 
the great antithesis of sin and grace. Out of Christ, sin and 
death reign ; in Christ, righteousness and life. 

The anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews forms the transition 
from Paul to John, and gives us the fullest insight into the 
eternal priesthood and sacrifice of Christ. 

John, the mystic seer among the Apostles, penetrates most 
deeply into the character of Christ, on whose bosom he leaned, 
and strikes the keynote of the highest type of Theology in the 
word : " God is love." God's love to all mankind manifested 
in Jesus Christ, is the central idea of John's Dogmatic ; man's 
love to God and the brethren, is the sum and substance of his 
Ethic. John and Paul meet in the idea of love, as the highest 
of the Christian graces, which binds and makes fruitful all the 
other graces and shall abide forever, when faith shall have 
passed into sight, and hope into fruition. 

The best representations of New Testament Theology enter 
into all the differences, and give us almost as many apostolic 
types of teaching as there are books in the New Testament. 
But there is unity as well as diversity in the teaching of Christ 
and his Apostles, and we need a work in which this unity is 
more fully brought out. 

CHAPTER CCIV. 

HISTORY OF BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 

Biblical Theology as to spirit and substance is as old as the 
Bible, but as to scientific form it dates only from the eighteenth 
century. It is, we may say, a child of German Rationalism and 
was born at the same time with higher or literary criticism, but 
it is perfectly consistent with faith, and is cultivated also by 
evangelical and orthodox theologians. 

As long as the teaching of the Bible was identified with that 
of the Church or with orthodoxy, there was no motive for the 
special treatment of the former ; but when the two were more 
or less clearly distinguished, Biblical Theology began to be cul- 



HISTORY OF BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 329 

tivated, first in a spirit of hostility to Church orthodoxy ; then 
in opposition to the Bible itself, as being a mixture of facts and 
myths, of truth and error ; but at last, in a spirit of impartial 
historical inquiry. The third phase represents the true stand- 
point. Supreme regard is due to the teaching of the Bible, 
subordinate regard to the teaching of the Church derived 
from it. 

Patristic Theology was both biblical and traditional ; it de- 
rived all its material and arguments from the Bible as inter- 
preted by the rule of faith. Scholastic Theology was traditional 
and ecclesiastical, and rested on the Fathers rather than the 
Bible. The theology of the Reformation was a revival of Bibli- 
cal Theology (in spirit and aim, though not in form), but was 
soon succeeded by another phase of scholasticism intensely 
confessional and polemical. Then followed the radical reaction 
of Rationalism, which broke loose from all restraint of Church 
authority and viewed the Bible itself as a mere human produc- 
tion to be explained and judged like any other book. 

Rationalists made the first attempts to treat the Bible doc- 
trines historically in distinction from and in alleged opposition 
to all subsequent systems of Church orthodoxy. To this class 
belong the now antiquated biblical theologies of Ammon 
(1792), G. L. Bauer (1796-1800), Kayser (1813), De Wette (1st 
ed. 1813, 2d ed. 1830, the ablest among them), Baumgarten- 
Crusius (1828), Cramer (1830), Colin (ed. by D. Schulz, 1836), 

The revival of evangelical faith since Schleiermacher and 
Neander gave a new spirit and character to Biblical Theology- 
Neander's Planting and Training of the Apostolic Church (1832 
and since) marks an epoch and enters into the discussion of the 
apostolic types of doctrine with deep spiritual sympathy and 
with an eye to their unity as well as diversity. Since that time 
Bible Theology of the New Testament has been chiefly cultivated 
by Schmid, Reuss, Messner, Van Oosterzee, Weiss and Bey- 
schlag ; that of the Old Testament, by Hengstenberg, Haver- 
nick, Vatke, Steudel, Von Hofmann, Oehler, Ewald, Kuenen 
and Schultz. 



330 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

CHAPTER CCV. 

LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 

I. Old Testament Theology. 

G. F. Oehler (Ephorus in Tubingen, d. 1872) : Prolegomena zur Tlieo- 
logie des Alten Test. (Stuttgart, 1845). 

H. A. C. Havernick (d. 1846) : Vorlesimgen iiber die Theologie des A. T; 
herausg. von Hahn mit Vorwort von Dorner (Erlangen, 1848; 2d ed., with, 
notes by Herm. Schultz, Frankf.-a-M., 1863). Orthodox and learned, in 
the spirit of Hengstenberg. 

* Heinrich Ewald (d. 1874) : Die Lehre der Bibel von Gott oder Theologie 
des Alten und Neuen Bundes (Leipzig, 1871-75, 4 vols.). The last work of 
this great scholar. It comprehends the Old and New Testament theology. 
Translated in part, by Th. Goadby (Edinb. 1888). 

* Hermann Schultz (Professor in Gottingen, School of Ewald) : Alttes- 
tamentliche Theologie. Die Offenbarungsreligion auf Hirer vorchristlichen 
Entwickelungstufe (1869; 4th ed., entirely revised, Gottingen, 1889, 821pp.). 
English translation by J. A. Paterson, Professor of Old Testament theology 
in the United Presbyterian College, Edinburgh (Edinburgh, 1892, 2 vols.). 

* G. F. Oehler (d. 1872) : Theologie des A. T. (Tubingen, 1873, 2 vols. ; 
3d ed. Stuttgart, 1891, 1 vol.). English translation by E. D. Smith and 
S. Taylor (Edinburgh, 1874), revised by George E. Day, Theology of the Old 
Testament (New York, 1883, 1 vol.). Very useful for students. 

Abr. Kuenen (d. 1891) : De Godsdienst van Israel tot den ondergang van 
den Joodschen Staat (Haarlem, 1869-70, 2 vols.). Hypercritical. English 
translation by A. W. May : Tlie Religion of Israel to the Fall of the Jewish 
State (London, 1874-75, 3 vols.). 

* Charles A. Briggs (Professor in Union Seminary, N. Y. ) : Biblical 
Study : its Principles, Methods and History (New York and Edinburgh, 1883 ; 
4th ed. 1891). Ch. XL, 367-405. 

F. W. Schultz (of Breslau) in Zockler's Handbuch der TJieol. Wissen- 
scliaften (1883), vol. i., pp. 289-338. 

A. Duff (United Presbyterian) : Old Testament Theology (Edinburgh, 
1891). 

B. Stade (Professor in Giessen) : Alttestamentliche Theologie (in course 
of preparation, 1893). 

A. B. Davidson (Professor of Hebrew, New College, Edinb.) : Theology 
of the Old Testament (in course of preparation for the Briggs- Salmond " In- 
ternational Theological Library," 1893). 

The Christology of the Old Testament, or Messianic Prophecies, are 
treated in special works by Hengstenberg (Berlin, 1829-32 ; 2d ed. 1854-57, 
3 vols, transl. by Theod. Meyer, Edinb., 4 vols.); Eiehm (Gotha, 1875; 
2d ed. 1885) ; James Drummond (The Jeioish Messiah, London, 1877) ; P. J. 
Gloag (Edinburgh, 1879); Ed. Bohl (Vienna, 1882); C von Orelli 
(Vienna, 1882 ; English transl., Edinb. 1885) ; C A. Briggs (Messianic 
Prophecy, New York and Edinb., 1886) ; Franz Delitzsch (Messianische 



LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 331 

Weissagungen in geschichflicher Folge, 1890 ; transl. by Samuel Ives Curtiss 
of Chicago, Edinburgh, 1891). 

II. New Testament Theology. 

* Neander (d. 1850) : History of the Planting and Training of the Church 
under the Apostles (second part, Hamburg, 1832 ; 5th ed. 1862 ; English 
translation by Eyland, Edinb. 1842, 2 vols. ; revised by Ez. G. Eobinson, 
New York, 1864). 

Chr. Fr. Schmid (d. 1852 at Tubingen) : Biblical TJieology of the N T. 
(edited by Weizsacker, Stuttgart, 1853, 2 vols. ; 4th ed. 1869). Eminently 
biblical and sound. The abridged English translation by G. H. Venables 
(Edinburgh, 1870) omits the general statements which are very important. 

Ed. Reuss (d. at Strassburg, 1891) : Histoire de la theologie chreticntie au 
siecle apostolique (History of the Christian TJieology of the Apostolic Age) 
(Strassburg, 1852, 2 vols. ; 3d ed. 1864). Translated into English by Miss 
A. Harwood (London, 1872), also into Dutch and Swedish. Able and critical. 

* Thomas Dehany Bernard (Canon and Chancellor of Wells) : The 
Progress of Doctrine in the New Testament (Bampton Lectures, London, 
1864; 4th ed. 1878). Compare his more recent work quoted on p. 332. 

F. C. Baur (d. at Tubingen, 1861) : Lectures on New Testament TJieology 
(German). Published after his death by his son (1864). Independent, crit- 
ical, and suggestive, but he makes Paul almost the founder of Christianity. 

J. J. van Oosterzee (Professor at Utrecht, d. 1882) : TJie TJieology of 
tJie Neiv Testament (Dutch ; German transl., Barmen, 1869 ; English transl. 
by Maurice J. Evans, London, 1870, and by George E. Day, New York, 
1871). A brief manual for students. 

A. Immer : New Testament TJieology (Bern, 1878). 

* Bernhard Weiss (Professor in Berlin) : Handbook of tJie Biblical The- 
ology of tJie New Test. (Berlin, 1868 ; 5th ed. 1888 ; transl. from the 3d ed. 
by Dav. Eaton and J. E. Duguid, Edinb. 1882-83, 2 vols.). The most com- 
plete and accurate work, which rests on a thorough exegetical and critical 
study of all the details. 

R. Grau, in Zockler's HandbucJi der TJieol. WissenscJiaften (1833 sqq.), 
vol. i., pp. 549-633. 

* Willibald Beyschlag (Professor in Halle) : NeutestamentlicJie TJxeo- 
logie oder gescJiicJitlicJie Darstellung der LeJiren Jesu und des UrcJiristentJiums 
nacJi den neutcstamentlicJien Quellen (Halle-a-S., 1891-92, 2 vols.). The most 
important work after that of Weiss, and more full on the teaching of Jesus. 

Professor Schurer and Professor Grafe are preparing manuals on New 
Testament TJieology (1893). 

(a) The Teaching of Jesus : 

Jos. P. Thompson (d. 1870) : TJie TJieology of CJirist (New York, 1870). 

W. F. Gess (d. 1891) : CJiristi Person und WerJc, nacJi CJiristi Selbstzeug- 
niss und der Apostel (Basel, 1870-78). 

E. Worner : Die LeJire Jesu (Basel, 1882). 

* H. H. Wendt (b. 1853, Professor in Heidelberg, School of Ritschl) : Die 
LeJire Jesu (Gottingen, first part, on the sources, 1886 ; second part, 1890). 
The second part was translated by John Wilson : TJie Teacliing of Jesus 
(New York, 1892, 2 vols.). 



332 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Thomas Dehany Bernard : The Central Teaching of Jesus Christ. A 
Study and Exposition of the Five Chapters of the Gospel according to St. John, 
13-17 inclusive (London and New York, 1892). Eeverential and devout, but 
less important, scientifically, than his former work quoted on p. 331. 

Compare the literature on the Life of Christ, ch. clxxii., p. 271. 

(&) The Teaching of the Apostles (Apostolische Lehrbegriffe) : 

Discussed by Lutterbeck (Roman Catholic, 1852, 2 vols.), Messner 
(1856), and also in the respective sections of the works on the Apostolic 
Age by Neander, Lechler, Schaff, Weizsacker, and Pfleiderer. 

(c) The Teaching of the Several Apostles : 

Paul by Usteri (1824 ; 6th ed. 1851), Dahne (1835), Stanley Leathes 
(1869), W. J. Irons (1876), A. Sabatier (1870; 2d ed. 1881; transl. from 
the French by J. G. Findlay, with preface by Sabatier, N. Y., 1891), Hol- 
sten (1868 and 1880), O. Pfleiderer (1873 ; in English, 1885), Lorenz 
(1884), E. T. Knowling (1892), G. B. Stevens (1892). 

The Teaching of Peter by B. Weiss (1855). 

The Teaching of the Epistle to the Hebreivs by Eiehm (1859 ; 2d ed. 
1866). 

The Teaching of John by Frommann (1839), K. E. Kostlin (1843), 
Hilgenfeld (1849), B. Weiss (1862). 

The Teaching of James by W. Schmidt (1869) and Kubel (1880). 

The Teaching of the Apocalypse by H. Gebhardt (1873) and William 
Milligan (1886). 

Compare the literature on the Apostolic Age, p. 273. 



THIRD SECTION: DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. 



CHAPTER CCVI. 

DEFINITION AND CONTENTS OF DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. 

Dogmatic or Didactic Theology, usually called Systematic 
Theology,* is a compreheusive scientific statement of Christian 
truth contained in the Scriptures and believed and taught in 
the Church. A dogma in the technical ecclesiastical sense 
(statutum, decretum) is a doctrine formulated by Church author- 
ity or a publicly recognized article of faith.t 

Dogmatic Theology formerly embraced also Moral Theology 
or Christian Ethic ; but now they are distinct and separately 
treated. 

Each system of Dogmatic must embrace the following de- 
partments (Loci Theologici |) : 

1. Bibliology : a discussion of the Bible, viewed as the su- 
preme rule of faith and duty, and its relation to the subordinate 
rules of tradition and reason. 

2. Theology, in the narrower sense, that is, the doctrine of 
God : the knowableness or cognoscibility of God (gnosticism 
and agnosticism) ; the arguments for his existence ; his names 
and attributes ; the unity and trinity of the Godhead (Father, 
Son and Spirit ; the trinity of essence, and the trinity of reve- 
lation). Theism in opposition to Deism and Pantheism. 

3. Cosmology : God's relation to the world. The doctrine 
of creation, preservation and providence. The decrees, or the 

* Theologia dogmatica, as distinct from TJwologia moralis ; also Doctrina 
Christiana ; Institatio or Institutiones Christiana? Religionis. The term Sys- 
tematic Theology is customary among English and American writers, but 
is too wide, and would embrace also Apologetic, Symbolic, Polemic and 
Ethic. 

t On the meaning of dogma and the difference between truth, doctrine 
and dogma, see above, pp. 249 sq. 

+ Loci Communes means, in philosophical usage, fundamental ideas and 
self-evident truths. Melanchthon gave this title, and also the title Loci 
Tlieologici, to his dogmatic work, and later Lutheran divines accepted it in 
the sense of chief articles of the dogmatic system. 

333 



334 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

eternal purpose of creating and saving mankind in Christ. 
The Theodicy. The best system of the moral universe. 

4. Angelology : the doctrine of good and bad angels. Satan- 
ology or Diabolology is a part of it and treats of Satan and the 
prehistoric fall. 

5. Anthropology, or the doctrine of man in his relation to 
God : the image of God ; the rational and moral constitution of 
man ; the origin of souls ; free-will • the state of original inno- 
cence ; the fall and its consequences. The state of redemption 
(conversion, regeneration, sanctification) is embraced in Sote- 
riology. 

6. Hamartology, or Ponerology : the doctrine of sin, in all 
its aspects and consequences. Part of Anthropology and Ethic. 

7. Christology, or the doctrine of Christ's person : his hu- 
manity, his divinity, and the relation of the two. 

8. Soteriology, that is, the doctrine of salvation, or Christ's 
work and office as Prophet, Priest and King ; the atonement, 
its nature and extent. 

9. Pneumatology : the doctrine of the Holy Spirit- his 
person and his relation to the Father and the Son ; his office 
and work in the regeneration, sanctification and glorification 
of believers. 

10. Ecclesiology : the doctrine of the Church and the king- 
dom of God ; its constitution, attributes, authority and aim. 

11. Sacramentology : the doctrine of the sacraments and 
the means of grace. 

12. Eschatology, or the doctrine of the last things : death 
and immortality; hades and the middle state; the second 
advent; the general resurrection and the judgment; heaven 
and hell ; the beatific vision and life everlasting. 

These are the deepest and highest themes which can engage 
human thought. Hence the great importance and interest of 
Dogmatic Theology. 

CHAPTER CCVII. 

the sources of dogmatic theology. 

There are three sources of Dogmatic Theology : the Bible, the 
Church, and the Christian consciousness or experience. 

The Bible contains the word of God written by holy men 



BIBLICAL DOGMATIC. 335 

as they were moved by the Holy Spirit (2 Pet. 1 : 21). It is, 
therefore, the infallible rule of faith and practice, and nothing 
can claim the authority of a dogma or an article of faith which 
is not founded on the teaching of Christ and the Apostles. 

The Church is the keeper and expounder of the Bible, but 
any particular branch of the Church universal is liable to err, 
and may be corrected and reformed as it advances in the 
knowledge of truth. 

The Christian consciousness and experience appropriates 
and digests the matter supplied by the Bible and the creeds of 
the Church. 

Dogmatic Theology, therefore, comprises a biblical, a churchly 
or confessional, and a personal and experimental element. It is 
a rational and critical digest of the teaching of the Bible and the 
Church. These three elements may be combined in one work, 
or may be separately treated with more fullness. 



CHAPTER CCVIII. 

BIBLICAL DOGMATIC. 

Biblical Dogmatic is a systematic exhibition of the Bible 
doctrine of faith and duty as an organic whole. It is essen- 
tially the same as Biblical Theology, but differs from its genetic 
historical method. It gives the results systematically arranged, 
while Biblical Theology traces the revealed religion in its gradual 
growth and its various stages and types. 

Every dogmatic system should begin with a brief statement 
of the teaching of the Bible as containing the germs of the sub- 
sequent confessional developments. 

Literature. 

K. Im. Nitzsch (d. 1868) : System der christlichen Lehre (Bonn, 1829 ; 6th 
ed. 1851 ; Eng. transl. by Kobert Montgomery and Hennen, Edinburgh, 
1849). Embraces Biblical Dogmatic and Ethic, but with constant refer- 
ence to modern opinions. 

Johann Tobias Beck (1804-78; Professor in Tubingen since 1843), 
following in the line of Bengel and Oetinger, endeavored to build up in vari- 
ous writings a purely biblical theology without any regard to historical 
developments. His theology may be called pneumatic and realistic Bib- 
licism. He was a colleague of Dr. Baur and his antipode, but in re- 
spectful personal relations with him, and exerted a great influence upon 



336 THEOLOGICAL PROPAEDEUTIC. 

the students by his enthusiasm for the depth and sufficiency of the Bible. 
He wrote, Einleitung in das System der christlichen Lehre (Propcedeutik) 
(Stuttgart, 1838; 2d ed. 1870). ChristUche Lehrwissenschaft nach den bib- 
lischen Urkunden (Stuttgart, vol. i., 1841; 2d ed. 1875; unfinished). Um- 
riss d. bibUschen Seelenlelire (Stuttgart, 1843 ; 3d ed. 1877 ; translation, 
Outlines of Biblical Psychology, Edinburgh, 1877). ChristUche Liebeslehre 
(1875). Leitfaden d. cliristl. Glaiibenslelire fiir Eirche, Schide, mid Hans 
(1862 ; 2d ed. 1869). ChristUche Ethik (published after his death by Lin- 
denmeyer, 1882-83, 3 vols.). See an article on Beck's theology by Kubel 
in Herzog 2 , vol. xvii., pp. 693-706. 

Robert B. Kubel (Beck's pupil and successor as Professor in Tubin- 
gen) : Das christliche Lehrsystem nach der heiligen Schrift (Gutersloh, 1874, 
2 vols.). Embraces Ethic and Dogmatic. 



CHAPTER CCIX. 

CONFESSIONAL OR CHURCHLY DOGMATIC. 

Confessional or Churchly (Ecclesiastical) Dogmatic exhibits 
the doctrinal system of a particular Church as laid down in 
the symbolical books or confessions of faith. It is chiefly his- 
torical, as Biblical Theology is chiefly exegetical. Its object 
may be either purely objective and historical, or also personal 
and denominational (but not necessarily sectarian). 

Denominational differences are not always confessional or 
doctrinal. The Presbyterians, Methodists, and Baptists are 
divided into several denominations or independent organiza- 
tions, which acknowledge the same creeds or confessions, and 
differ only in minor matters of worship and discipline.* 

There are as many kinds of Ecclesiastical Dogmatic as there 
are creeds or confessions of faith. Each has its own standard 
of orthodoxy and heterodoxy. 

The dogmatic systems of the Greek and Roman Churches 
are based on the Bible and tradition, as equally authoritative 
sources and binding rules of faith and public teaching; but 
with this difference, that the Greek Church confines tradi- 
tion to the first seven (Ecumenical Councils, while the Roman 
Church extends it to the twentieth (Ecumenical Council of 

* According to the census of the United States of 1890, there are in the 
United States over one hundred (145) denominations and sects, and accord- 
ing to Whitaker's Almanack for 1892, there are as many or even more (254) 
in Great Britain. But they may be reduced to less than a dozen creeds or 
confessions. See the statistical tables on p. 24, and the Census Bidletins 
published in numbers by Dr. Henry K. Carroll, Washington, 1892 and 1893. 



DOGMATIC THEOLOGY OF THE GREEK CATHOLIC CHURCH. 337 

1870, and lodges it permanently in the official infallibility of 
the Pope. The Protestant systems of Dogmatic are based npon 
the Scriptures, as the only infallible rule of faith, use tradition 
with critical discrimination, and allow larger liberty to reason 
and private judgment. Rationalism makes reason the judge of 
both Scripture and tradition. 

We shall now give a brief outline of the principal dogmatic 
systems in their chronological order. 



CHAPTER CCX. 

DOGMATIC THEOLOGY OF THE GREEK CATHOLIC CHURCH. 

Catholicism, in its technical, ecclesiastical sense, has two 
branches : the Oriental or Greek, and the Occidental or Roman. 
They show the influence, one of the Greek, the other of the 
Roman, spirit. The former is older, more metaphysical, and 
stationary; the latter is more practical and progressive, and 
was completed in the Vatican Council of 1870. They are very 
similar in theory, yet very antagonistic in fact. The Pope of 
Rome and the Czar-Pope of Russia are the greatest rivals. 

The Dogmatic of the Eastern or Greek Church, which claims 
the monopoly of pure, primitive orthodoxy, is based upon the 
doctrinal decisions of the first seven (Ecumenical Councils 
(325-787), especially the Nicasno-Constantinopolitan Creed of 
381 (without the Filioque). Its chief authorities among the 
Fathers are Athanasius, Gregory of Nazianzen, Gregory of 
Nyssa, Cyril of Alexandria, and especially John of Damascus 
(d. after 750). 

The Greek Dogmatic is metaphysical and lays chief stress 
on the oecumenical doctrines of the Trinity, the Incarnation, 
and the duo-physitic and dyo-thelitic personality of Christ. It 
adheres to the older anthropology and soteriology, and has 
never been affected by the Augustinian doctrine of total de- 
pravity and the loss of free-will. 

Literature. 

St. John of Damascus (Chrysorrhoas) : "Eicdooig uKpififc ttjq bpdo66£ov 
marecjc (De Fide orthodoxa), in Migne's Patrologia Grceca, torn, xciv., 
pp. 789-1228 (Paris, 1864). It is in process of translation by Professor 
Salmond of Aberdeen for the "Post-Nicene Library of the Fathers." 



338 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

The Orthodox Confession of the Eastern Church (1643), and The 
Eighteen Decrees of the Synod of Jerusalem (1672). Both in Greek 
and Latin in SchaiFs Creeds of Christendom, vol. ii., pp. 275-444. 

Philaret (b. 1782, d. 1867, Metropolitan of Moscow) : The Longer Cate- 
chism of the Orthodox Russian Church, revised and published by the Holy 
Synod of St. Petersburg (Moscow, 1839, in several languages and many 
editions ; English translation by Blackmore, Aberdeen, 1845). The doctri- 
nal part of this catechism is printed in Schaff s Creeds, vol. ii., pp. 445-542. 

Le Quien: Oriens Christianus (Paris, 1740, 3 vols.). 

W. Gass : Symbolik der Griechischen Kirche (Berlin, 1872). 

Arthur P. Stanley: Lectures on the History of the Eastern Church 
(London and New York, 4th ed. 1869). 

For other works on the Greek and Russian Church, see Schaff, Creeds 
of Christendom, vol. i., pp. 43, 46, 50, 54, 61, 68; also the " Schaff -Herzog 
Encycl.," vol. ii., p. 904. 



CHAPTER CCXI. 

DOGMATIC THEOLOGY OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 

Roman Catholic Dogmatic is founded on the theology of the 
Fathers, the doctrinal Decrees of the Council of Trent (1563), 
and of the Council of the Vatican (1870). It is best expounded 
and defended by Bellarmin, Bossuet, Mohler, and Perrone. 

It is essentially the same with Greek orthodoxy, but differs 
from it in the doctrines of the Papacy, the double Procession 
of the Holy Spirit, the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin 
Mary as defined by Pius IX. in 1854, and the Infallibility of 
the Pope as decreed in 1870. It is also more fully developed 
in anthropology, soteriology and eschatology. 

The Roman Catholic Creed is the most complete and most 
logical of all dogmatic systems, as the papacy is the most com- 
plete and absolute form of government; but it requires the 
sacrifice of reason and freedom, which God himself has given 
us, and for the use of which we are individually responsible. 

Literature. 

The chief builders of the Koman Catholic creed before the Reformation 
were St. Augustin, Gregory the Great, and Thomas Aquinas. The last is the 
favorite divine of Pope Leo XIII., who recommended him for study in an 
encyclical of August 4, 1879, and ordered a magnificent edition of all his 
works at his own expense. 

Henricus Denzinger (Professor at Wiirzburg, d. 1862) : Enchiridion 
Symoolorum et Definitionum, quw de Beous Fidei et Morum a Conciliis (Ecu- 



DOGMATIC THEOLOGY OF THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. 339 

mciiicis et summis Pontificibus emanarunt (Wirceburgi, 6th ed. by Stahl, 
1888). A very convenient compend. 

Giovanni Perrone (b. 1794, Professor in the Jesuit college in Rome, 
d. 1876) : Prcelectiones theologicce (Rome, 1835 sqq., 9 vols., and often repub- 
lished at Turin, Paris, Brussels and Ratisbon). The Compend by the same 
author has appeared in different languages and many editions. 

German works on Roman Dogmatic by F. Brenner (1830, 3 vols.), 
Mohler (Symbolih, several edd.), H. Klee (4th ed. 1861), F. R. Dieringer 
(5th ed. 1865), Fr. Friedhoff (1871), J. B. Heinrich (1874-89, 7 vols.), 
Hettinger (1888), and Scheeben (1892, 3 vols.). 

French works : Bossuet : (" The Eagle of Meaux," " The Last of the Fa- 
thers," d. 1704) : Exposition de la doctrine de Veglise catholique (many edd.). 

Th. M. J. Gousset : Theologie dogmatique ou exposition des preuves et des 
dogmes de larelig. cathol. (Paris, 1850, 4 vols.). 

English works : Cardinal Wiseman : Lectures on the Principal Doctrines 
coid Practices of the Catholic Church (London, 1836, several editions). 

Jos. Berington and John Kirk: The Faith of Catholics on Certain 
Points of Controversy, Confirmed by Scripture and Attested by the Fathers of 
the First Five Centuries of the Church. Third edition, revised and greatly 
enlarged by James Waterworth (London, 1846, 3 vols.). 

James Gibbons (Cardinal, and Archbishop of Baltimore) : The Faith of 
our Fathers : Being a Plain Exposition and Vindication of the Church founded 
by our Lord Jesus Christ (Baltimore, 1876, 36th revised ed. 1890). Not 
scientific, but popular and very plausible, like Cardinal Wiseman's Lectures. 



CHAPTER CCXII. 

DOGMATIC THEOLOGY OF THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. 

The Dogmatic of the Lutheran Church is based upon the 
Augsburg Confession (1530) and the Formula of Concord 
(1577). It agrees with the Eoman Church in the oecumenical 
doctrines, is Augustinian in anthropology and soteriology, and 
original in the doctrines of justification by faith alone (which 
expresses Luther's personal experience) and the eucharistic 
presence of Christ "in, with, and under" the elements of bread 
and wine.* 

There are, however, two types of Lutheranism : the strict or 
high Lutheranism of the Formula of Concord, and the moder- 

* Kahnis (vol. i. 1) : u Die Dogmatik der lutherischen Kirche hat die Glau- 
benslehren lutherischen Behenntnisses aus dem Formalprincipe der Schrift zu 
beweisen und aus dem Materialprincipe der Bechtfertigung aus dem Glauben zu 
entwickehi." This definition omits the doctrine of the Lord's Supper by 
which Lutheranism differs from the Roman and the Reformed doctrines ; 
but Kahnis surrendered the literal interpretation of the words of insti- 
tution, on which Luther so strongly insisted at Marburg. 



340 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

ate, Melanchthonian Lutheranism of the altered Augsburg Con- 
fession of 1540. The chief champions of the former theology 
are the Lutheran scholastics from the latter part of the sixteenth 
to the middle of the eighteenth century : Chemnitz (1591), John 
Gerhard, Hutter, Calov, Quenstedt, Hafenreffer, Konig, Baier, 
and Hollaz. In the nineteenth century, Lutheran orthodoxy 
was revived in opposition to Rationalism and Unionism, but in a 
milder form, and with some changes, by the leading theologians 
of Erlangen (Yon Hofmann, Thomasius and Frank), Rostock 
(Philippi and Dieckhoff), and Leipzig (Kahnis and Luthardt). 

Melanchthon, the pure and noble scholar, the "Prgeceptor 
Germanise," the inseparable companion of Luther who wrote 
to him his last letters, the admiring friend of Calvin, in whose 
bosom he ivished to die, is the author of the Augsburg Confes- 
sion and the proper founder of Lutheran Theology. He was 
far less original and productive than Luther, who cut out the 
stones from the quarry, but more scholarly and methodical. His 
Loci Theologici (1521), which grew out of his exegetical lectures 
on the Epistle to the Romans, and which Luther thought worthy 
of a place in the Canon, are the first attempt at an Evangel- 
ical Dogmatic, and, in their improved forms, continued to be 
the text-book in Lutheran universities till the beginning of the 
seventeenth century, when they were thrown into contempt by 
an uncharitable orthodoxy. It seems incredible that Leonhard 
Hutter, in a public disputation at Wittenberg, tore the likeness 
of Melanchthon from the wall and trod upon it. But the spirit 
of Melanchthon revived in Calixtus, Spener, Mosheim, Bengel, 
in the modern irenical Lutheranism, and in the evangelical 
Union Theology of Germany. His memory was celebrated 
throughout Protestant Christendom in 1860 at the third cen- 
tennial of his death, and will ever be honored. 

Literature. 

I. Historical representations of the scholastic Lutheran orthodoxy of the 
seventeenth century. 

Karl Hase : Hutterus Eedivivus, Dogmatik der EvangeliscJi-Lutherischen 
Kirclie (Leipzig, 12th ed. 1883). The amiable author differed widely from 
the orthodoxy of the seventeenth century, but he knew how to appreciate 
it as a historian. He says in the preface: "Das dogmatische System des 
16 und 17 Jalirhunderts Team mir vor wie einer unsrer alien deutsehen Miinster 
mit seinen himmelstrebenden Spitzbogen und wunderlichen sinnvollen Zier- 
rathen. Niclit allezeit ist der Herr in soldi einem steinernen Hocliivalde ver- 



DOGMATIC THEOLOGY OF THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. 341 

dirt worden. Als Er selbst noch auf Erden wandelte, war der Himmel und die 
Erde seine Eirche, ein Berg seine Kanzel ; damach Melt man das Liebesmahl 
in JTerkstdtten und in Katakomben ; zu andrer Zeit erscliallte das Te Deum 
laudarnus unter den heitern Saulenhallen und Kuppelgewolben des Siidens ; 
unci uberall wo Zwei oder Tausende sich in seinem Namen versammelt hatten, 
war der Rerr mitten unter ihnen. Einen Dom wie unsre Vorfahren kann 
unsre Zeit nicht wieder bauen, vor einigeu Jahrzehnten Melt man's sogarfur 
ein altgothisch barbarisch Bauwerk ; es icird einem dber doch ganz besonders 
wie in einem Gotteshause darin zuMuthe." Hase presents his own dogmatic 
views in his Evangelische Dogmatik (Leipzig, 1826 ; 6th ed. 1870) ; and in 
his Gnosis, oder protestantiscli-evangelisclie GlaubensleM'e, fur die Gebildeten 
in der Gemeinde, icissenschaftlich dargestellt (1827-29, 3 vols. ; 2d ed. 1869- 
70, 2 vols.). This judgment applies to Calvinistic scholasticism as well. 

Heixrich Schmid (of Erlangen, d. 1885) : The Doctrinal Tlieology of the 
Evangelical Lutheran Church. Translated from the 5th German ed. by 
Charles A. Hay and Henry E. Jacobs (Philadelphia, 1876). 

II. Modern reproductions and modifications. 

A. D. C. Twesten (successor of Schleiermacher in Berlin, d. 1876) : 
Vorlesungen iiber die Dogmatik der Evangeliscli-Lutlierisclien Kirche (Ham- 
burg, 1837 ; 4th ed. 1838, 2 vols.). Eepresents the movement from Schleier- 
macher to Lutheranism, but within the United Church of Prussia. Very 
able and clear, but unfortunately never finished. 

H. Martexsen : Die christliche Dogmatik (Kiel, 1850 ; 3d ed. 1855 ; English 
translation in Clark's Foreign Theological Library). Very fresh and genial. 

F. A. Philippi : Eirchliche Glaubenslehre (Stuttgart, 1854-72; 3d e*d. 
1864-88, 6 vols.). Strictly Lutheran. 

Gottfried Thomasius (Professor in Erlangen, d. 1875) : Christi Person 
und Werk. Darstellung der evangeliscli-lutherischeii Dogmatik vom Mittel- 
punkte der Christologie aus (Erlangen, 1852-61; 3d ed. 1888, 2 vols.). 
Christocentric. Departs from Lutheran orthodoxy by the theory of 
kenosis. Compare also his Dogmengeschichte (new ed. by Seeberg, 1888). 

Chr. Ernst Luthardt (Professor in Leipzig) : Kompendiwn der Dog- 
matik (Leipzig, 1865; 6th ed. 1882). A very useful manual. 

K. Fr. A. Kahxis : Die Lutherische Dogmatik historisch-genetisch darge- 
stellt (Leipzig, 2 vols., 1861 and 1864; new ed. in 2 vols., 1875). Progres- 
sive Lutheran orthodoxy in touch with modern thought. Compare his 
Zeugniss von den Grundicahrheitcn des Protestantismus gegen Dr. Hengsten- 
berg (Leipzig, 1862). 

F. H. R. Frank (Professor of Theology in Erlangen) : System der clirist- 
lichen Gewissheit (Erlangen, 1870-73, 2 vols. ; 2d ed. 1881-84). System der 
christlichen Wahrheit (Erlangen, 1878-80, 2 vols. ; 2d ed. 1885-86). Dogma- 
tische Studien (Leipzig, 1892). 

American works : 

Charles B. Krauth (of Philadelphia, d. 1883) : The Conservative Refor- 
mation and its Theology (Philadelphia, 1872). Not a system, but a series 
of essays in defense of the distinctive doctrines of orthodox Lutheranism, 
of which the author was the chief representative in America. 

Sam. Sprecher (President of Wittenberg College, Springfield, O.) : 
Groundwork of a System of Evangelical Lutheran Theology (Phila., 1879). 



342 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 



CHAPTER CCXIIL 

DOGMATIC THEOLOGY OF THE REFORMED AND CALVINISTIC 

CHURCHES. 

The Dogmatic Theology of the Evangelical Reformed 
Churches agrees with the evangelical Lutheran system, except 
in the doctrines of predestination, the sacraments and the 
ubiquity of Christ's body. It is based on the same pessimistic 
anthropology of St. Augustin, but is more logical and severe, 
and has gone through similar phases of development, but has 
been less influenced by Rationalism. It is embodied in the 
Reformed Confessions of the sixteenth and seventeenth centu- 
ries, and is held by the Reformed Churches in Switzerland, 
Germany, France, Holland, by the Presbyterian Churches of 
England, Scotland and America, by the Congregational or Inde- 
pendent Churches, and, with the exception of the doctrine of 
baptism, by the Regular or Calvinistic Baptists. It was de- 
veloped by Calvin, Bullinger, Danaeus, Ursinus, Zanchi, Francis 
Turretin, Coccejus, Witsius, Heidegger, and all the Puritan 
divines of England and New England (Jonathan Edwards and 
his school). In the modern age it has been reproduced, with 
various modifications, by Alex. Schweizer, Heinrich Heppe, 
Ed. Bohl, Aug. Ebrard and Van Oosterzee in Europe, and by 
Dwight, Taylor, Park, Hodge, Shedd, H. B. Smith, and E. V. 
Gerhart in America. 

There are two types of Calvinism, as there are of Luther- 
anism : the strict, scholastic Calvinism of the Canons of Dort 
and the Westminster Confession ; and the moderate Calvinism 
of the Heidelberg Catechism, the Second Helvetic Confession, 
and the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England. Moder- 
ate and progressive Calvinism omits or softens the five knotty 
points of Dort and seeks to reconcile divine sovereignty and 
human liberty, divine justice and divine love. It is in sympa- 
thy with the Melanchthonian type of Lutheranism ; it enters 
as an important factor into the evangelical Union Theology of 
Germany, and is gaining ground in all the Reformed Churches 
of Europe and America. 

Literature. 

John Calvin : Institutio Christiana Beligionis (1st ed. 1536 ; last revised 
ed. 1559). A classical masterpiece of permanent value. Many edd. in 



DOG^IATIC THEOLOGY OF THE REFORMED CHURCH. 343 

different languages ; see the literary notices in Schaff's Church History, 
vol. vii., pp. 327 sq. 

Heinrich Heppe (Professor in Marburg, d. 1879) : Die Dogmatik der 
evang. reform. Kirche (Elberfeld, 1861). — Dogmatik des deutscJien Protestant- 
ismus im 16tw> Jahrh. (Gotha, 1857, 3 vols.). Compare also his Bekenntniss- 
schriften der altprotestantiscJien Kirche DeutscJilands (Cassel, 1855). 

Alexander Schweizer (Professor in Zurich, d. 1888) : Die Glauocns- 
lehre der Prang. Reform. Kirche, dargestellt und aus den Quellen belegt (Zurich, 
1844-47, 2 vols.). Compare his Centraldogmen der Reform. Kirche (Zurich, 
1854-56, 2 vols.). Two very important historical works. A. Baur (in his 
ZicingWs Theologie, ii. Preface) calls Schweizer " the genuine successor of 
Zwingli in his chair and pulpit." He was the ablest Eeformed pupil of 
Schleiermacher, as Twesten was his ablest Lutheran pupil. He gives his 
own dogmatic system in his Christliche GlaubensleJire nacli protestantiscJien 
Grundsdtzen dargestellt (Leipzig, 1863-72, 3 parts ; 2d ed. 1877). 

J. H. A. Ebrard : Christliche Dogmatik (Konigsb., 2d ed. 1863, 2 vols.). 
Moderately Calvinistic (Melanchthonian), and polemic against Schweizer. 

John Peter Lange (Professor first at Zurich, then at Bonn, d. 1884) : 
Christliche Dogmatik (Heidelberg, 1849-52 ; new ed. 1870, 3 vols.). Divided 
into three parts : 1. Philosophical Dogmatic ; 2. Positive Dogmatic ; 3. 
Polemic and Irenic. Full of original thoughts and fancies. 

J. J. van Oosterzee (Professor in Utrecht, d. 1882) : Christian Dog- 
matics: A Textbook for Academic Distraction and Private Study. Translated 
from the Dutch (London and New York, 1874, 2 vols.). 

Scotch Presbyterian works by G. Hill, J. Dick, and Thomas Chalmers. 

Charles Hodge (Professor in Princeton, d. 1878) : Systematic TJieology 
(New York and Edinburgh, 1872, 3 vols., with an index vol.). The stand- 
ard work of the Old School type of American Presbyterianism. 

Archibald A. Hodge (son and successor of the former, d. at Princeton, 
1886) : Outlines of TJieology (New York, 1860 ; rev. and enlarged, 1879). A 
popular epitome of his father's work. 

Henry B. Smith (Professor in Union Theological Seminary, d. 1877) : 
System of Christian TJieology (New York, 1st ed. 1884; 4th ed. 1890). A 
posthumous work, published from lectures by William S. Karr, and there- 
fore incomplete, but very able, acute and philosophical. Progressive Cal- 
vinism in transition to Christocentric theology, and in living touch with 
modern German systems of thought. 

William G. T. Shedd (Professor in Union Theological Seminary, 
resigned 1890): Dogmatic TJieology (New York, 2d ed. 1889, 2 vols.). A 
clear, strong, logical reproduction of the high Calvinism of the West- 
minster Confession. 

Augustus H. Strong (Professor in Bochester Theological Seminary, 
Baptist): Systematic TJieology (New York, 1886; 2d ed. 1889). High Cal- 
vinistic, except on the baptismal question. 

Emanuel Y. Gerhart (Professor in the German Eeformed Seminary 
at Lancaster, Pa.) : Institutes of the Christian Religion (New York, 1891, to 
be completed in two more vols.). Christocentric. The fruit of the Mer- 
cersburg movement. 

Lewis French Stearns (a pupil of Henry B. Smith, Professor in the 



344 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Theological Seminary at Bangor, Me. ; d. 1892) : Present Day TJieology: A 

Popular Discussion of Leading Doctrines of the Christian Faith (New York, 

1893). With a biographical Introduction by Professor George L. Prentiss. 

A. M. Fairbairn : The Place of Christ in Modern Theology (New York, 1893). 

CHAPTER CCXIV. 

DOGMATIC THEOLOGY OF THE ANGLICAN CHURCH. 

The Church of England and her independent daughter, the 
Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States, is the most 
conservative of the evangelical Churches and nearest the Roman 
Catholic in organization and worship. She was once intoler- 
ant and exclusive, and she still insists upon conformity to 
episcopacy and the rubrics of her liturgy j but in theology, she 
is very liberal and allows almost as much latitude, at least in 
England, as the Protestant State Churches on the Continent. 
She nursed at her breast Calvinistic Puritans, Arminian Meth- 
odists, liberal Latitudinarians, and Romanizing Tractarians and 
Ritualists. She has room for divines as Calvinistic as Toplady 
and as Arminian as Wesley, as high-church and Romanizing 
as Dr. Pusey and as broad-church and latitudinarian as Dean 
Stanley. Recent judicial decisions in the cases of Hampden 
(1836), Grorham (1850), Bennett (1871), and others, have all been 
decided in favor of the liberty of holding different opinions, even 
to the denial of baptismal regeneration and the real presence. 

This comprehensiveness of the Church as a whole is quite 
consistent with the narrowness and exclusiveness of parties 
within her bosom. ■ It repels and attracts ; it caused the large 
secessions which have occurred at critical junctures, but it ex- 
plains also the individual accessions which she continually and 
quietly receives from the clergy and laity of other churches. 
The English mind is not theorizing and speculative, but emi- 
nently practical and conservative ; it follows more the power 
of habit than the logic of thought ; it takes things as they are, 
makes haste slowly, mends abuses cautiously, and aims at what 
is attainable rather than at what is ideal. 

The Anglican theology is composite and eclectic, like the 
English language. It was first moulded by the influence of 
Melanchthonian Lutheranism, afterwards more strongly by 
Calvinism. The Thirty-nine Articles drawn up by Cranmer in 
1553 with the aid of Bucer and Peter Martyr, revised under 



DOGMATIC THEOLOGY OF THE ANGLICAN CHURCH. 345 

Queen Elizabeth in 1563 in Latin, and 1571 in English, and 
again revised by the American Episcopal Church in 1801, must 
be classed upon the whole with the Reformed or moderately 
Calvinistic confessions. They accept the three oecumenical 
creeds (the Athanasian Creed, however, is wisely omitted in the 
American revision). They are moderately Augustinian in the 
doctrines of free-will, sin and grace ; Lutheran in the articles 
of justification and the Church ; and Reformed or moderately 
Calvinistic in the doctrines of predestination and the Lord's 
Supper. They were supplemented by the Nine Lambeth Arti- 
cles (1595), which go to the full extent of Calvin's doctrine of 
absolute predestination (with reprobation and pretention). The 
same rigorous Calvinism was taught in the Irish Articles of 
Archbishop Ussher (1615), some of which were literally incor- 
porated into the Westminster Confession. In the Elizabethan 
age, Calvin was the greatest theological authority in England. 
Even the moderate and judicious Richard Hooker prized him 
most highly, and says that " the perf ectest divines were judged 
they which were ski 11 fullest in Calvin's writings; his books 
almost the very canon to judge both doctrine and discipline 
by." The Church of England was represented by five delegates 
at the Calvinistic Synod of Dort (1619), among them, John 
Davenant and Joseph Hall. 

In the reign of Charles I., chiefly through the influence of 
Archbishop Laud, Calvinism gave way to Arminianism, but it 
revived again in the low-church or evangelical party. This was 
followed by the Oxford or Anglo-Catholic and Ritualistic re- 
vival, and later by the broad-church liberalism. The Thirty- 
nine Articles have lost much of their authority. The Xicene 
Creed has risen in estimation, and is offered by the Lambeth 
Conference of Bishops as a sufficient doctrinal basis for the 
reunion of Christendom. 

Literature. 

The chief dogmatic works of Anglican divines are expositions of the 
Apostles' Creed, and of the Thirty-nine Articles. 

Richard Hooker (d. 1600) : Eight Books of the Laws of Ecclesiastical 
Polity (London, 1594 sqq., not completed; best edition by John Keble, 
Oxford, 1841, 3 vols.). 

James Ussher (Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of Ireland, d. 1656) : 
Body of Divinity (1638) and Principles of the Christian Religion (1654). Cal- 
vinistic. Complete ed. of his Works (Dublin, 1847 sqq., 16 vols.). 

John Pearsox (Bishop of Chester, b. 1612, d. 1686) : An Exposition of 



346 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

the Creed. Third ed. by the author, 1669, fol., and very often since. Ed. 
with notes by Dobson (London, 1840), by Burton (Oxford, 1847), Chevallier 
(Cambridge, 1849). One of the most valuable works on theology in the 
English language. 

George Bull (d. 1710) : Defensio Fidei Niccence (London, 1685 ; a new 
translation, Oxford, 1851, 2 vols.). 

William Beveridge (Bishop of St. Asaph, d. 1708) : Thesaurus TJieolo- 
gicus ; or, A Complete System of Divinity (London, 1710-11, 4 vols. ; new ed. 
1828, 2 vols.). 

E. Harold Browne (Bishop of Winchester since 1873, resigned 1890) : 
An Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles (London, 1850-53, in 2 vols., and 
often since ; American ed. by Bishop Williams, New York, 1865, etc.). 

Other commentaries on the Articles by Thomas Eogers, Gilbert Bur- 
net, Eichard Laurence, Thomas E. Jones, A. P. Forbes, E. W. Jelf, 
J. Miller. See the literature and a full discussion of the Anglican stand- 
ards in Sehaff's Creeds, vol. i., pp. 592-665. 

Sam. Buel (Professor in the General Theological Episcopal Seminary, 
New York, d. 1892) : Treatise of Systematic Theology (New York, 1889,2 vols.). 

Note. — The most recent authoritative deliverance of the Episcopal 
Church of England and America is the four articles of the Pan- Anglican 
Conference, held at Lambeth Palace, London, 1888, as a basis of union for 
English-speaking Churches. 

"1. The Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, as ' contain- 
ing all things necessary to salvation,' and as being the rule and ultimate 
standard of Faith. 

"2. The Apostles' Creed, as the Baptismal Symbol; and the Nicene 
Creed, as the sufficient statement of the Christian Faith. (Nothing is said 
about the Filioque.) 

"3. The two Sacraments ordained by Christ himself, — Baptism and the 
Supper of the Lord, — ministered with unfailing use of Christ's words of 
institution, and of the elements ordained by him. 

" 4. The Historic Episcopate, locally adapted in the methods of its ad- 
ministration to the varying needs of the nations and peoples called of God 
into the unity of his Church." 

This is the shortest and most liberal creed ever set forth by any ortho- 
dox Church. But the fourth article, which refers to government rather 
than doctrine, has met with serious objection in the non-episcopal Churches. 



CHAPTER CCXY. 

ARMENIAN AND METHODIST THEOLOGY. 

The Arminian Theology arose in the Reformed Church of 
Holland in reaction against strict scholastic Calvinism, and is 
expressed in the Five Articles of the Remonstrants of 1610, 
which relate to predestination, the extent of the atonement, the 
nature of faith, the irresistibility of grace, and the persever- 



ARMLNIAN AND METHODIST THEOLOGY. 347 

ance of saints. It teaches that f oreordination is conditioned by 
foreknowledge ; that the atonement is universal and sufficient 
for all men, although efficient only for the elect ; that divine 
grace may be resisted, since man has still a remnant of freedom 
to accept or reject the offer of salvation ; and that regenerate 
believers may totally and finally fall from grace and be lost. 

Arminianism was rejected and banished by the National 
Synod of Dort (1619) ; but after the death of Prince Maurice 
of Nassau (1625), the expelled Arminians were allowed to return 
with full liberty to establish churches and schools in every town 
of Holland. Their doctrines were defended with much learning 
and ability by Hugo Grotius, Episcopius, Limborch, Curcelkeus, 
Clericus (Le Clerc), and Wetstein. 

The Arminian system assumed a much wider field and prac- 
tical power in England and America than in Holland. It has 
largely influenced the Church of England since the time of 
Archbishop Laud, and was adopted by John Wesley and his 
followers. 

The Methodist Theology is a modified evangelical Arminian- 
ism. It differs from the Dutch Arminianism by a stronger 
Augustinian view on natural corruption ; it lays greater stress 
on the subjective experience of conversion and regeneration ; 
and adds a few additional doctrines, namely : 

1. The doctrine of the universality of divine grace not only 
in its intention, but in its actual offer. (This was derived from 
the Quaker doctrine of universal light.) 

2. The doctrine of the witness of the Spirit or the assurance 
of salvation (Rom. 8 : 15, 16). 

3. The doctrine of perfectionism (also borrowed from the 
Quakers, and based on such passages as Matt. 5 : 48 ; Phil. 
3 : 15 5 Heb. 6:1; 10 : 4 ; 1 John 3:6; 5 : 18). 

Literature. 

James Arminius (Professor in Leyden, d. 1609) : Works, translated from 
the Latin by James and William Nichols (London, 1825-75, 3 vols. ; Opera 
Theoh, 1631). 

Philip van Limborch (Professor in the Arminian College at Amster- 
dam, and chief defender of religious toleration in his age ; d. 1712) : InsU- 
tutiones Theol. Christiana (Amsterdam, 1686, 5 edd. till 1735; English 
translation "by William Jones, London, 1702, 2 vols.). 

John Wesley (founder of Methodism, and the most apostolic man that 
England has produced ; d. 1791) : Sermons on Several Occasions (London, 



348 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

1771, 4 vols. ; many edd.). Compare his Explanatory Notes upon the Neio 
Testament (based upon Bengel's Gnomon). 

Methodist Articles of Religion, a liberal and judicious abridgment of 
the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England, drawn up by Wesley 
for the American Methodists, and adopted at a Conference in 1784, and 
again in 1804. They are printed in the official Manual of the Method- 
ist Episcopal Church, and in Schaff's Creeds of Christendom, vol. iii., pp. 
807-813. 

Richard Watson (Wesleyan, b. 1781, d. in London, 1833) : Theological 
Institutes; or, A View of the Evidences, Doctrines, Morals, and Institutions 
of Christianity (London, 1823-24, 3 vols. ; many edd.). With a copious 
Index and Analysis by Dr. John McClintock (New York, 1850, 2 vols.). 
"The moral and scientific standard of Methodism." 

William Burt Pope (Professor in Didsbury College, Manchester) : A 
Compendium of Christian TJieology (London and New York, 1875-76; re- 
vised ed. 1879-81, 3 vols.). 

Miner Raymond (Professor in Garrett Biblical Institute since 1864, 
Evanston, 111.) : Systematic Theology (Cincinnati, O., 1877-79, 3 vols.). 

John Miley (Professor of Systematic Theology in Drew Theological 
Seminary, Madison, N. J.) : Systematic Theology (New York and Cincin- 
nati, 1892, pp. xvi., 533, to be continued). 



CHAPTER CCXVI. 

SOCINIAN AND UNITARIAN THEOLOGY. 

Socinianism of the sixteenth century, and Anglo-American 
Unitarianism of the nineteenth century may be classed together 
as radical departures from the general orthodoxy of the his- 
toric Churches, Greek, Roman, and Evangelical. They are alike 
opposed to the Nicene Theology and the Augustinian anthro- 
pology. They reject the doctrines of the Trinity and the Incar- 
nation, the vicarious atonement of Christ, original sin and total 
depravity, and materially modify other essential articles of the 
Catholic creeds. 

But, while they are indifferent or hostile to dogmas, they 
firmly maintain the ethical teaching of Christianity and empha- 
size the moral perfection of Christ as the highest model for 
imitation. This accounts for the noble and refined type of 
Christian character which is often found among Socinians and 
Unitarians. 

Socinianism has produced a meager, but definite system of 
theology. It is laid down in the Rakow (Racovian) Catechism 
and the writings of Faustus Socinus and his followers which 



SOCINIAN AND UNITARIAN THEOLOGY. 349 

are collected in the Bibliotlieca Fratrum Polonoram (1656, 6 vols, 
fol.). The Socinian sect nourished awhile in Poland, but was 
expelled by the Diet of Warsaw under the influence of the 
Jesuits in 1658, and found a refuge in Transylvania and in 
Holland. It became the mother of English Unitarianism, and 
exerted much influence upon the theology of the Lutheran and 
Reformed Churches. 

Servetus, who was burned for heresy at Geneva in 1554, is 
sometimes called the author and martyr of Unitarianism, but 
his system is Christopantheistic rather than Unitarian, and was 
not properly understood in his day, not even fully by Calvin 
his great antagonist.* The real founder is the younger Socinus 
(d. 1604) and other Italian refugees who settled in Switzerland, 
but were repelled by the rigor of the Calvinistic system, and 
offended by the execution of Servetus. They were among the 
first advocates of religious toleration. 

The Socinian Theology is not a system of pure rationalism, 
but of rational supernaturalism. It rejects the tri-personality of 
God and the essential divinity of Christ, and reduces the Holy 
Spirit to a divine power or influence ; but it teaches the abso- 
lute necessity of a divine revelation as laid down in the Bible, 
accepts the New Testament as an infallible guide in matters of 
faith and duty, and makes Christ an object of divine worship. 
Christ was conceived without sin, divinely illuminated by a 
rapture to heaven (raptus in coelum) and deified after his resur- 
rection in reward for his perfect obedience in life and death 
by being elevated to a participation in the divine majesty and 
government. Faustus Socinus refused to recognize as Chris- 
tians those who would not pay divine honors to Christ. 

Unitarianism in England and America has no formulated 
creed or dogmatic system, and allows greater latitude of devel- 
opment, both in the direction of heresy and orthodoxy, between 
a purely humanitarian and a high Arian Christology, with 
corresponding freedom in other doctrines. The only article of 
Unitarian belief is the acceptance of Christ as Lord and Saviour, 
and as the model of moral conduct. Beyond this it is liberal 
and elastic. It professes to be "not a fixed dogmatic state- 

* See a full account of the theological system of Servetus from his 
Restitutio Christianismi, and of the toleration controversies connected with 
it, in Schaff s Church History, vol. vii., pp. 736-757. Servetus was a theolog- 
ical genius of great originality and speculative power. 



350 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

ment, but a movement of ever-enlarging faith, welcoming 
inquiry, progress, and diversity of individual thought in the 
unity of spiritual thought." 

The chief Unitarian divines are James Martineau, William 
E. Channing, Andrews Norton, George E. Ellis, James F. Clarke, 
Andrew P. Peabody, Joseph H. Allen. The radical or left wing 
is represented by Theodore Parker, who sympathized with 
Strauss, but had a higher view of Christ and an enthusiasm 
for humanity and moral reform. 



CHAPTER CCXVII. 

RATIONALISTIC THEOLOGY. 

Rationalism goes further than Socinianism and the conserva- 
tive wing of Unitarianism. It makes reason the chief fountain 
of authority and an arbiter of the Church and the Bible. It 
rejects or minimizes revelation and inspiration, and treats the 
Bible like any other book, though assigning it the highest 
place among works of religious genius. It is not organized as 
a religious society, but is simply a school or tendency within 
the Protestant State Churches of Europe. It resembles in this 
respect the schools of Gnosticism in the ante-Nicene age. 

Rationalism arose at the end of the last century in Germany 
in opposition to Lutheran orthodoxy, and as a reaction against 
symbololatry, and has there developed great scientific and lit- 
erary activity. At one time it had the controlling influence 
in the universities and Church judicatories. It has spread its 
influence over the Protestant Churches of the Continent, and 
is exerting itself of late also in England and America. It is 
chiefly negative and destructive, but has a critical value in 
exposing the weak points of traditional orthodoxy and stimu- 
lating progress. Thus it serves a similar purpose to modern 
Protestantism as Gnosticism did to the ancient Church. 

In Rationalistic Theology, we must distinguish chiefly two 
phases, the theistic or Kantian, and the pantheistic or Hegelian. 

The older Rationalism, represented by Wegscheider and 
Bretschneider, retained the fundamental articles of the person- 
ality of God, the freedom and moral responsibility of man, and 
the immortality of the soul. 



RATIONALISTIC THEOLOGY. 351 

The later Rationalism, represented by Strauss and Bieder- 
mann, begins by denying the personality of God, and ends in 
the annihilation or absorption of the personality of man. 

The Hegelian philosophy originally produced a quasi-ortho- 
dox theology, which was represented by Marheineke and Daub, 
or the right wing. It treated vulgar Rationalism with con- 
tempt, and defended the fundamental doctrines of Christianity, 
especially the Trinity and Incarnation, but gave them a differ- 
ent and speculative meaning. The left or radical wing denies 
the historicity of the gospel facts, and thus undermines the firm 
foundation of the eternal truths which those facts are supposed 
to embody. 

The latest phase is more positive and constructive, partly in 
connection with the revival of Kant's philosophy (Lipsius), 
partly on the basis of the Hegelian philosophy (Pfieiderer). 

Literature. 

I. Theistic Eationalism. 

J. A. L. Wegscheider (Professor in Halle, d. 1849) : Institutiones Tlie- 
ologicce Christiance Dogmatical (Halle, 1815 ; 8th ed. 1844). 

K. G-. Bretschneider (Professor at Wittenberg, 1804, General Superin- 
tendent at Gotha, 1816 ; d. 1848) : Handbucli der Dogmatik der evang.-luther. 
Kir die (Leipzig, 1814 sqq. ; 4th ed. 1838, 2 vols.) ; also, Systemat. Entwick- 
elung aller in der Dogmatik vorkommenden Begriffe (Leipzig, 1805 ; 4th ed. 
1841). 

II. Pantheistic Eationalism. 

Phil. Marheineke (Professor in Berlin, d. 1846) : Die Grundlehren der 
cliristlielien Dogmatik (Berlin, 1819; 2d ed. 1827). — System der cliristlielien 
Dogmatik (1847). Orthodox Hegelianism. 

D. F. Strauss (d. 1874) : Die cliristliclie Glaubenslehre "in Hirer geschiclit- 
lichen Entwickelung und im Kampfe mit der modemen Wissenscliaft (Tubin- 
gen, 1840-41, 2 vols.). Purely destructive, like his Leben Jcsu. His last 
sad work was Der alte und der neue Glaiibe (11th ed. 1881), in which he 
retracts all his former concessions to Christianity and avows the gospel of 
materialism and pessimism. 

A. E. Biedermann (Professor in Zurich, d. 1885) : Christliche Dogmatik 
1869 ; 2d ed. Berlin, 1885, 2 vols.). He was an earnest Christian man, and 
tried to combine practical Christianity with pantheistic theology. 

III. E. A. Lipsius (Professor in Jena, d. 1892) : Lelirbucli der evangeliscli- 
protestantisclien Dogmatik (Braunschweig, 1876 ; 2d ed. 1879). On the 
basis of Kant and Schleiermacher. He opposes the modern Lutheran 
orthodoxy, but also the school of Eitschl. He has great respect for Bieder- 
mann, but differs from him, as Schleiermacher differed from Hegel. 

Otto Pfleiderer (Professor in Berlin since 1875) : Grundriss der 
Glaubens- und Sittenlelire (Berlin, 1880 ; 4th ed. 1888). Comp. his Philosophy 
of Religion (2d ed. 1884). He belongs to the philosophical school of Hegel 



352 THEOLOGICAL PROPAEDEUTIC. 

and the critical historical school of Baur, and closely approaches Bieder- 
mann, but allows more influence to the convictions of the heart {Gemiith). 
He defines religion to be essentially a matter of the heart (wesentlich 
Herzenssaclie, p. 12), and faith as a dedication of the heart to the revelation 
of divine mercy in the gospel (centraler Herzensdkt der Hingabe an die Gna- 
denoffenbarimg Gottes im Evangelium, p. 7). 



CHAPTER CCXVIII. 

EVANGELICAL UNION THEOLOGY. 

The Evangelical Union Theology arose with the revival of 
evangelical religion after the dreary winter of Rationalism. In 
Germany, it is connected with the ecclesiastical Union of the 
Lntheran and Reformed Confessions, which was introduced at 
the third jubilee of the Reformation in 1817 in Prussia and 
other German States. But it is quite independent of this gov- 
ernmental Union and has sympathizers in all Protestant coun- 
tries and churches. It has exerted more influence upon modern 
English and American thought than any other German school. 

This type of Evangelical Theology rests on the consensus of 
the two leading Protestant Confessions, which is not formulated 
in a creed, but has practically superseded the exclusive confes- 
sionalism, and is allowed to shape itself freely with the pro- 
gressive march of knowledge.* The doctrinal differences of 
the Lutheran and Reformed Churches are theological rather 
than religious, and do not prevent Christian and ecclesiastical 
communion,, but admit of reconciliation in a higher type, and de- 
mand a further development. For this reason this theology is 
sometimes called the Theology of Mediation or Reconciliation.! 

It rises also above the antagonism of Rationalism and Super- 
naturalism, and finds the essence of Christianity not in a body 
of doctrines, but in a divine fact and a new life, namely, the 
revelation of God in Christ for the salvation of the world. 

The Union Theology was foreshadowed by the genial Herder 
and men of kindred spirit. It was first advocated and con- 
structed into a scientific system by Schleiermacher, who eman- 

* Dr. Julius Miiller made an important contribution towards a formu- 
lated consensus from the Lutheran and Reformed Confessions in his work, 
Die evangelisclie Union, ilir Wesen und gottliches Beclit (Berlin, 1854), pp. 
170-205, but it has no official character. 

t Vermittlungstlieologie, also used in the sense of mediating between 
faith and philosophy, orthodoxy and liberty. 



EVANGELICAL UNION THEOLOGY. 353 

cipated German Theology from the dominion of Rationalism, 
and, together with Neander, his colleague, introduced a new 
era. It was modified and developed by Twesten, Schweizer, 
Nitzsch, Julius Miiller, Rothe, Ullmann, Lange, Dorner, and 
others. Schleiermacher was the son of a Reformed minister 
and educated among the Moravians, and shows the influence of 
these connections in his system (the Calvinistic element in his 
conception of religion as a sense of absolute dependence, and 
the Moravian influence in his Christocentric principle) ; but the 
majority of evangelical Union divines are of Lutheran descent 
and mode of thinking. They have the conciliatory and liberal 
spirit of Melanchthon. They reject the double predestinarian- 
ism (not election by free grace, which is acknowledged by all, 
but what Calvin called the decretum liorribile of eternal rep- 
robation), and emphasize the fatherhood and love of God rather 
than his sovereignty and justice. But they mostly accept Cal- 
vin's doctrine of the spiritual real presence in the Lord's Supper, 
which was a point of agreement between him and Melanchthon 
in his later phase of development. 

The Union Theology of Germany is confined to the Lutheran 
and German Reformed type. A corresponding theology in 
Great Britain and America must enlarge its scope and include 
as far as possible the post-Reformation forms of English-speak- 
ing evangelical Protestantism, which in our generation are 
gradually coming into closer sympathy and fellowship ; but an 
evangelical catholic consensus creed and theology is as yet a 
matter of the future. 

Literature. 

Frtedrich Schleiermacher (Professor in Berlin, d. 1834) : Der christ- 
liclie Glaiibe nach den Grundsatzen der evangelisclien Kirche (Berlin, 1830 ; 
3d ed. 1835, 2 vols.). Bitschl ranks this work with the Summa of Thomas 
Aquinas and the Institutio of Calvin, as one of the three great dogmatic sys- 
tems. But we would rather compare Schleiermacher with Origen, and his 
theology with the work Be Principiis. It is epoch-making and suggestive 
even in its errors, but unsatisfactory as a system. It is built upon the 
Christian consciousness or experience of sin and grace as expressed in 
the evangelical confessions, and prepares the way for Christocentric Theol- 
ogy. His best pupils have gone beyond him in the direction of positive 
faith. He himself protested earnestly "against the honor of being the 
head of a new theological school" (Preface to the second ed., 1830, p. 5). 

To the Evangelical Union school of theology as to spirit and aim, but 
with various modifications, belong the dogmatic works (already mentioned 
in preceding chapters) of Nitzsch, Twesten, Liebner, Martensen, Hase, 
J. P. Lange, Schweizer, Ebrard, Heppe, and Van Oosterzee. 



354 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Julius Muller (Professor in Halle, d. 1878) : Die christliche Lehre von 
der Siinde (Breslau, 1838; 7th ed., Bremen, 1889; English translation by 
William Urwiek, The Christian Doctrine of Sin. from the 5th ed., Edinb. 
1868; new ed. 1877, 2 vols.). The best book on hamartology. (In con- 
nection with this work may be mentioned Thohick's popular and very 
effective book on Sin and Redemption, 1825, in a series of letters between 
Julius, i.e., Julius Muller, and Guido, i.e., his friend Tholuck. Both were 
colleagues in Halle.) — Dogmatische Abhandlungen (Bremen, 1870). — Die 
evang. Union (Berlin, 1854). 

Julius Muller was one of the purest, ablest and soundest divines of Ger- 
many, and his lectures on Theology (of which I have a good manuscript) 
would have been welcomed in print, but in his extreme modesty he ordered 
all his manuscripts to be destroyed. Dr. Henry B. Smith has published 
Miiller's scheme and the collection of his proof-texts. 

Karl Ullmann (Professor of Church History at Heidelberg, d. 1865) 
was a Church historian, but his Das Wesen des Christenthums (TJie Essence 
of Christianity, 1845 ; 5th Germ. ed. 1865 ; English translation by John W. 
Nevin, 1846) and Die Siindlosigkeit Jesu (Hie Sinlessness of Jesus, 7th ed. 
1863 ; English translation, by Sophia Taylor, 1870) must be mentioned 
here for their dogmatic contents. 

Eichard Rothe (Prof essor in Heidelberg, d. 1867) : Dogmatik (published 
from manuscript, by D. Schenkel, Heidelberg, 1870, 2 vols.). — Zur Dog- 
matik (Gotha, 1863). Compare also his Tlwologische Ethik (2d ed. 1867-71, 
5 vols.), which contains a great deal of dogmatic theology. Rothe was 
one of the profoundest speculative divines of the nineteenth century, and 
worked up some of the best elements of Hegel's philosophy and Schleier- 
macher's theology into an independent system. He combines strong faith 
in supernatural revelation with a liberal view on inspiration. He says (in 
the Preface to his Zur Dogmatik) : " Mein strenger Supranaturalismus und 
Gffenbarungsglaube stosst den theologischen Liber alismus vor den Kopf meine 
Weise, die heil. Schrift anzusehen, die orthodoxe Bichtung." To him may 
be applied the words of Cardinal Cajetan to Luther: "He has profound 
eyes and marvelous speculations in his head." 

Isaac A. Dorner (Professor in Berlin, d. 1884) : System der christlichen 
Glaubenslehre (Berlin, 1879-81, 2 vols. ; 2d ed. 1886 ; English translation 
by Cave and Banks, A System of Christian Doctrine, Edinburgh, 1880-82, 
4 vols.). A profound work of permanent value, influenced by Schleier- 
macher and Hegel, but biblical and positive. Compare also his classical 
history of Christology (2d., 2 vols.), his collection of Theological Essays 
(1883), his History of Protestant Tlieology (1867) and his theological corre- 
spondence with Martensen from 1839 to 1881 (posthumously published, 
Berlin, 1888, 2 vols.). 

Fr. Reiff : Die christliche Glaubenslehre als Grundlage der christl. Weltan- 
schauung (Basel, 1872, 2 vols.; 2d ed. 1876). Popular and biblical. 

A. Gretillat (Professor of theology in La Faculte Independante de 
Neuehatel) : Expose de Theologie Systematique (Neuchatel, 1892). 

The "Studien und Kritiken," a theological quarterly, started by Ull- 
mann and Umbreit, 1828, and still published (at present by Kostlin and 
Kautzsch), and Herzog's "Theol. Real-Encyclopsedie " (especially the 
first ed., 22 vols.) are chiefly, though by no means exclusively, controlled 
in their doctrinal articles by evangelical Unionists. 



THE THEOLOGY OF RITSCHL. 355 

CHAPTER CCXIX. 

THE THEOLOGY OF RITSCHL. 

The latest school of German Theology was founded by Dr. 
Ritschl (1822-89), and spread rapidly in the last quarter of the 
nineteenth century. He belonged originally to the critical 
Tubingen school of Baur, who was a Hegelian in philosophy ; 
but he took a new departure in 1857, first on questions of 
apostolic and post-apostolic Church history, and then also in 
philosophy and theology.* 

This school is largely influenced by Schleiermacher, but it 
takes its stand on the objective records of primitive Christianity 
rather than the subjective experience of the religious conscious- 
ness.! It rises, like the Evangelical Union Theology, above 
the confessional antagonism of Lutheranism and Calvinism, 
but sympathizes with the spirit of the former ; while Schleier- 
macher's system has an affinity with the latter. His orthodox 
opponents denounce his theology as a new form of Rational- 
ism, but it differs from the Rationalism of Kant and Hegel by 
its evangelical spirit and by recognizing the supernatural revela- 
tion of God in Christ as its basis. 

Ritschl agrees with Schleiermacher in keeping theology free 
from philosophy. He expels all metaphysical dogmas and argu- 
ments from the domain of Christian doctrines. He leaves no 
room for Natural Theology.! He claims to deliver theology 
from all collision with philosophy, science and biblical criti- 
cism, and to simplify the problem of faith by relieving it of 
foreign matter which has no necessary connection with faith 
and religious life. He hopes to commend Christianity to edu- 
cated and thinking people who have lost all confidence in dog- 
mas, which can at best be made only plausible, but cannot 
compel conviction. 

* Kitschl maintained against Baur the originality and priority of the 
Gospel of Mark, and took a different view on the origin of the old Catholic 
Church, in the second edition of his work, Die Entstehung der alikaiholis- 
chen Kirclie (1857). 

t See Kattenbusch, Von Schleiermacher zu Ritschl, zur Orientirung iiber 
den gegenicdrtigen Stand der Dogmatik (Giessen, 1892). 

t He once startled an American student, who in broken German magni- 
fied the importance of Natural Theology, by the cool reply: "So ein 
Ding giebfsja gar nicht" (There is no such thing) ! But it lives and will 
survive. 



356 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

But his theology is not unphilosophical, any more than 
Schleiermacher's. He has a philosophy of his own, which con- 
trols his thinking. He admits that every scientific theologian 
must proceed according to a definite theory of cognition. He 
adopts Kant's theory of cognition, as modified by Lotze. He 
distinguishes, with Kant, between the thing-in-itself , which we 
cannot know, and the thing-for-us, or the phenomenon, which 
we can know. Religious judgments are judgments of value 
(Werthurtheile), that is, affirmations as to what persons and 
things are tvorth, not in themselves, but to us.* Ritschlianism 
is connected with the rise of New Kantianism ; it is a whole- 
some reaction of agnosticism, which recognizes the boundaries 
of human knowledge, against the Hegelian gnosticism, which 
claims absolute knowledge.! 

Here is the philosophical ground of Ritschl's hostility to 
metaphysical dogmas, and to the modern Lutheran orthodoxy. 
He assigns to Luther the highest place among theologians, and 
professes to follow him in his earliest stage, that is, Luther as 
an evangelical Christian and Reformer, but not Luther as a 
Catholic dogmatist and reactionist. Luther ought consist- 
ently to have made an end of dogma instead of originating new 
dogmas (like the ubiquity of Christ's body, and the communi- 

* "Alle Erkenntnisse religioser Art sind directe Werthurtheile" Die christJ. 
Lehre von der Eechtfertigung und Versohnung (vol. iii., pp. 195, 376; 
third ed.). 

t The agnosticism of Kant, Sir William Hamilton and Mansel, who be- 
lieved in the Christian revelation, mnst not "be confounded with the skep- 
tical agnosticism of Darwin, Spencer and Huxley. I quote an interesting 
passage from Sir William Hamilton's Dissertations, which states his theory 
in an extreme form : 

" There are two sorts of ignorance : we philosophize to escape ignorance, 
and the consummation of our philosophy is ignorance. We start from the 
one, we repose in the other ; they are the goals from which and to which 
we tend ; and the pursuit of knowledge is but a course between two igno- 
rances, as human life is itself only a traveling from grave to grave. The 
highest reach of human science is the scientific recognition of human igno- 
rance : Qui nescit ignorare, ignorat scire. This learned ignorance is the 
rational conviction by the human mind of its inability to transcend certain 
limits : it is the knowledge of ourselves — the science of man. This is ac- 
complished by a demonstration of the disproportion between what is to be 
known and our faculties of knowing the disproportion, to wit, between the 
infinite and the finite. In fact, the recognition of human ignorance is not 
only the one highest but the one true knowledge, and its first-fruit is hu- 
mility. Simple nescience is not proud : consummated science is positively 
humble. The grand result of human wisdom is thus only a consciousness 
that what we know is as nothing to what we know not — an articulate con- 
fession, in fact, by our natural reason, of the truth declared in Revelation, 
that "now we see through a glass darkly." 



THE THEOLOGY OF RITSCHL. 357 

catio idiomatum), which were afterwards imposed on the Church 
as articles of faith in the Formula of Concord and developed 
and vindicated by the scholastics of the seventeenth century. 
In the controversy with Zwingli he fell back more and more 
into the subtleties of the schoolmen whom he formerly had 
despised as sophists and followers of the "accursed heathen 
Aristotle." * 

The historians of RitschPs school, under the lead of Haraack, 
regard the Nicene Creed as the product of the Hellenic philoso- 
phy working upon Christian material, rather than the product 
of Christian faith aided by the forms of Hellenic philosophy. 
The orthodox terminology of " person," "nature," "essence," 
" coequality," "incarnation," etc.,t as applied to the Trinity 
(three persons in one nature) and to the person of Christ (one 
person in two natures), served its purpose in the Greek 
Church, but has lost its meaning and significance for our age. f. 
Even the two clauses of the Apostles' Creed, " Conceived by the 
Holy Ghost, born of the Virgin Mary," are ruled out of the 
essential articles of apostolic teaching. § 

This theology is therefore anti-dogmatic and anti-scholastic ; 
it is still more anti-mystic. Herein lies both its strength and 
its weakness. 

Ritschl emphasizes the moral element in the religious life 
and exalts practice and experience above theory and specula- 
tion. He bases theology on the historical person of Christ and 



* Comp. here Harnack's Dogmengeschichte, vol. iii., pp. 755 sqq. He con- 
fines Bogmengescliichte to the history of dogmas properly so called, and 
strangely excludes Calvinism and Arminianism, the two leading dogmatic 
systems of the Reformed Church ; while he devotes 73 pages to Lutheran- 
ism (691-764) and 38 pages to Socinianism (653-691). German divines 
have no proper conception of the extent and power of the Reformed Church 
beyond Germany and Switzerland, and are apt to regard Zwingli and Cal- 
vin as mere epigoni of the Reformation. 

t These and other terms belong to ecclesiastical Greek, and are not 
found in the New Testament. See p. 138. 

X See the Christ ological section in Ritschl's Die christl. Lehre von der 
Eechtfertigung unci Yersohnung (vol. iii., p. 361 sqq.), and the second volume 
of Harnack's Dogmengeschichte. The same view is carried out more fully 
in the posthumous work of Edwin Hatch (a friend of Harnack), T7><° In- 
fluence of Greek Ideas and Usages upon the Christian World (The Hibbert 
Lectures for 1888), ed. by Fairbairn, London, 1890. Hatch regards the 
elevation of dogma over conduct as the damnosa hereditas bequeathed by 
Greek thought to Christendom. 

§ Schleiermacher, also, denied the supernatural conception, but held 
strictly to the sinlessness of Christ and assumed that the Holy Spirit kept 
him free from all contact with sin from the beginning (vol. ii., p. 64 sqq.). 



358 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

the facts of primitive Christianity as ascertained by critical 
and historical research, with the fullest liberty of dissent from 
traditional opinions on the authorship and canonicity of the 
books of the Bible (as exercised by Luther in his early stage). 

Dogmatic Theology is essentially Christological and Christo- 
centric* Christ is the first and only sinless man, and the su- 
preme revelation of the love of God. He founded the kingdom 
of heaven, which is the aim of divine revelation. The divinity 
of the risen and exalted Lord is admitted, but his personal pre- 
existence is declared to be unessential and of little practical 
consequence.f It is left an open question, like the apostolicity 
of the fourth Gospel, on which the Ritschlians are divided. 
Justification, or the pardon of sin, is the foundation of personal 
piety. The Church is the medium of the experience of justifi- 
cation. We must exercise individual faith, but the object of 
faith is presented to us through the religious community with 
which we are connected. Mysticism, which rests on the pre- 
tense of a direct personal revelation in communication with 
Christ, is discarded as a fanatical delusion, f 

In a private letter to me, Dr. Eitschl, shortly before his death, 
condensed his theological system into the following summary : 
" Strictest recognition of the revelation of God through Christ ; 
most accurate use of the Holy Scripture as the fountain of 
knowledge of the Christian religion j view of Jesus Christ as 
the ground of knowledge for all parts of the theological system • 
in accord with the original documents of the Lutheran Refor- 
mation respecting those peculiarities which differentiate its 
type of doctrine from that of the middle ages." § 

Among the chief dogmatic followers of Ritschl are Kaftan 
in Berlin, Herrmann in Marburg, Haering and Schultz in Got- 

* With this I fully agree. See chapter ecxxi., p. 362. 

t But preexistence is closely connected with the fact of the incarnation, 
and is clearly taught by. John and Paul and by Christ himself (John 6 : 62 ; 
8 : 58 ; 17 : 4, 24). On this point, also, Eitschl followed Schleiermacher. 

I Ritschl shows his inability to appreciate mystieism and pietism in his 
very able Geschichte des Pietismus (Bonn, 1880-86, 3 vols.). Mysticism as 
represented by Bernard of Clairvaux, Tauler, Thomas a Kempis, and some 
of the Pietists and Moravians, introduces us into the holy of holies of 
religious life. 

$ " Strengste Anerkennung der Offenoarnng Gottes durch Christus ; ge- 
nauste Benutzung der heiligen Sclirift als Erkenntnissgrund der christlicJien 
Religion; Verwendung Jesu Christi als des Erkenntnissgrundes fur alle 
Glieder des Systems ; im Einklang mit den Urkunden der lutherischen Refor- 
mation in Rinsiclit des eigentMimlicJien von der Theologie des Mittelalters 
abweiclienden Lelirtypus." 



THE THEOLOGY OP RITSCHL. 359 

tingen, Gottschick in Tubingen, Kattenbusch and Reischle in 
Giessen, Lobstein in Strassburg, and Gr. von Schulthess-Rech- 
berg in Zurich. His views have affected the recent researches 
in ancient Chnrch history, and especially the conception and 
treatment of the history of dogmas by Harnack and Loofs. 
His school is opposed on the one hand by orthodox Lutherans 
(Frank of Erlangen, Lnthardt of Leipzig, and Dieckhoff of 
Rostock), as a new phase of Rationalism ; and on the other, by 
speculative rationalists (Lipsius and Pfleiderer) on account of 
its hostility to philosophy. 

Literature. 

Albrecht Eitschl (Professor in Gottingen, d. 1889) : Die christliche 
Lehre von der Bechtfertigung und Yersohnung (Bonn, 1870-74, 3 vols. ; 3d 
ed. 1888-89). The first vol. is historical, the second exegetical, the third 
dogmatic, and gives the author's views on two of the important doctrines, — 
justification and atonement. It is his chief work. He has not left a 
full system, but only a brief popular outline in his Unterricht in der christ- 
liclien Religion (Bonn, 1875; 3d ed. 1886, 84 pp.). Compare also his Tlieo- 
logie und Metaphysik (Bonn, 1881). Eitschl is an original and vigorous 
thinker, but not a clear writer. His biography was written by his son, Otto 
Eitschl (1891). 

J. W. M. Kaftan (Professor in Berlin since 1883) : Das Wesen der christl. 
Religion (Basel, 1881; 2d ed. 1888). — Die Wahrlieit der christl. Religion 
(Basel, 1889).— Glaube und Dogma (Bielefeld, 1889). 

J. G. Herrmann (Professor in Marburg since 1879) : Die Religion im 
Verhdltniss zum Welterkennen und zur Sittlichlceit (Halle, 1879). — Die Gewiss- 
lieit des Glaubens und die Freiheit der Theologie (Freiburg, 1887; 2d ed. 1889). 

Friedrich Nitzsch (Professor in Kiel since 1872, son of K. I. Nitzsch) : 
Lehrbuch der evangelisclien Dogmatik (Freiburg, 1892). Mediates between 
Schleiermacher and Eitschl. 

Max Eeischle: Das Wesen der Religion (Freiburg, 1891). 

To the school of Eitschl belong, as regards their historico-dogmatio 
standpoint, the Dogmengescliichte of Harnack (1886-90, 3 vols.), the Dog- 
mengeschichte of Loofs (2d ed. 1890, 1 vol.), and the Symbolic of Katten- 
busch {Lelirbucli der vergleichenden Religionskunde, Freiburg i.B., 1891 sqq. ; 
dedicated to the memory of Tholuck and Eitschl; to be completed in 
3 vols.). 

The periodical organ of the school is the Zeitschrift fur Theologie und 
Kir die, ed. by J. Gottschick (Freiburg i.B., 1891 sqq.). 

The series of text-books now in course of publication by Mohr in Frei- 
burg is largely under the influence of the same school. 

Against Eitschl : F. H. E. Frank : Die kirchliche Bedeutung der Theolo- 
gie A. RitschVs (Erlangen, 1888). — E. A. Lipsius : Die RitschVsche Tlieologie 
(Leipzig, 1888). — W. Schmidt: Die Gefahren der RitschV schen Theologie fur 
dieKirche (Berlin, 1888). — O. Pfleiderer : Die RitschVsche Theologie (1893). 

Note. — An important incident in the history of the Eitschl school is 



360 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

the recent agitation about the Apostles' Creed, which brought it into seri- 
ous conflict with Lutheran orthodoxy and the Church authorities. Mr. 
Schrempf, a clergyman in Wiirtemberg, was deposed for refusing the cus- 
tomary recital of that creed in the services of baptism and confirmation. 
This case induced some students of theology to ask Professor Harnack's 
opinion on the expediency of petitioning the Oberkirchenrath (the highest 
Protestant Church tribunal in Prussia) to abolish or to relax the obligatory 
use of the Creed in public worship. Harnack, who sits in Neander's chair 
and is the chief representative of the Eitschl school among Church histo- 
rians, counseled against the petition, but wrote a pamphlet, Das Apostolische 
Glaubensbekermtniss (Berlin, 1892, pp. 44), in which he showed the compara- 
tively late origin of the Creed (as a Gallican enlargement of the older and 
simpler Eoman form dating from the third century), and objected to the 
clause on the supernatural conception by the Holy Ghost, as not belonging 
to the original preaching of the Gospel, since it is not contained in the Gos- 
pels of Mark and John or any of the Epistles (but it is taught in the first 
chapters of Matthew and Luke). He also objects to the articles on the com- 
munion of saints and the resurrection of the flesh (carnis) in their original 
sense. The Creed, he holds, is venerable and permanently valuable as a 
confession of God, the almighty Father, and Jesus Christ, his Son our 
Lord, through whom we have the remission of sin and eternal life ; but it 
fails to point to the teaching of Christ and his saving personality (?). 
"The symbol," says Harnack (p. 34), "contains only titles. In this sense 
it is imperfect ; for no confession is perfect which does not paint the 
Saviour before the eyes and impress him upon the heart." 

This pamphlet passed in a few weeks through more than a dozen editions, 
and provoked a widespread orthodox opposition all over Germany. The 
Ritschlians, in a conference at Eisenach, beneath the Wartburg, protested 
against the legally binding force of the Apostles' Creed, but not against its 
practical use. The Oberkirchenrath in Berlin tried to satisfy both parties 
and counseled tolerance and moderation. The chief pamphlets called forth 
by this controversy on the Apostles' Creed are by Kattenbusch in Giessen, 
Cremer in Greif swald, and Zahn in Erlangen (the last two against Harnack, 
who answered Cremer in the "Hefte zur Christlichen Welt," No. III.). 



CHAPTER CCXX. 

SPECULATIVE AND CRITICAL DOGMATIC. 

Speculative Dogmatic is a scientific exposition and rational 
vindication of the Christian faith. It rests on the conviction 
that revelation and reason, faith and knowledge, are not 
opposed in principle and aim, bnt that they proceed from the 
same God of truth and must harmonize. Speculative theology 
reproduces, criticises and advances the exegetical and historical 
material, and adjusts it to the religious thought of the times. 
No Confession of Faith, however elaborate, can legislate for all 



SPECULATIVE AND CRITICAL DOGMATIC. 361 

future generations and supersede independent thinking. If it 
does, it becomes a yoke of bondage and a symbol of stagnation. 
Every age must produce its own theology adapted to its specific 
wants. 

Speculative theology is akin to the philosophy of religion, 
and has often been more or less influenced by philosophy ; in 
the patristic age by Plato, in the scholastic period by Aristotle, 
in modern times by Descartes, Locke, Leibnitz, Wolff, Kant, 
Schelling, Hegel, Lotze. But theology derives its material from 
the Bible and the Church, and ought to be independent of any 
particular system of philosophy. For this reason we call it 
speculative, rather than philosophical. Schleiermacher and 
Ritschl disconnect theology from philosophy ; but their theol- 
ogy is nevertheless the product of speculative thought. Specu- 
lation and criticism are necessary to progress. Without them 
we would not have any dogmatic systems. 

From time to time there arises a great genius who by deeper 
views, bold combinations, or original methods marks an epoch 
and opens new avenues in the history of Dogmatic Theology. 
This was done by Origen, Athanasius, John of Damascus, among 
the Greek Fathers ; Augustin among the Latin fathers ; Anselm 
and Thomas Aquinas among the schoolmen ; Luther and Calvin 
among the Reformers; Jonathan Edwards in New England; 
Schleiermacher, Rothe and Ritschl among the modern divines 
of Germany. Such men usually dissent from the prevailing 
traditions and are heterodox, if judged by an earlier or later 
standard of orthodoxy. But they cannot be counted heretics ; 
they are rooted in the Christian faith, and have the mission to 
present it under new aspects, to rouse investigation, to keep 
theology in motion and to adapt it to the wants of the age. 

Systems pass away, but their influence continues. In the 
New Testament blooms the eternal spring. 

" Our little systems have their day ; 

They have their day and cease to be ; 
They are but broken lights of Thee, 
And Thou, O Lord, art more than they." — Tennyson. 



362 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

CHAPTER CCXXI. 

CHRISTOCENTRIC THEOLOGY. 

A dogmatic system, whether biblical, confessional or specu- 
lative, ought to have a central idea which dominates the several 
parts and sheds light upon them. We may distinguish three 
fundamental principles and methods of arrangement. 

1. Theocentric Theology. The absolute sovereignty and 
glory of God. The history of the world is suspended on eternal 
decrees of election and reprobation. Scholastic Calvinism. 
The Westminster Confession, chapter iii. 1 : " God from all 
eternity did by the most wise and holy counsel of his own will 
freely and unchangeably ordain whatsoever comes to pass." 
Calvin, however, in his Institutes, follows the trinitarian and 
historical scheme of the Apostles' Creed, and discusses election 
in the third Book (iii. 21). 

2. Anthropocentric Theology. The doctrine of sin and re- 
demption. Paul in the Epistle to the Romans. St. Augustin, 
Luther, Melanchthon (law and gospel). The Heidelberg Cate- 
chism, Quest. 2, lays down as the essential articles of knowledge, 
" first, the greatness of my sin and misery, second, how I am 
redeemed from all my sins and misery, third, how I am to be 
thankful to God for such redemption." The later Epistles of 
Paul (Colossians and Philip pians) and the anonymous Epistle 
to the Hebrews are Christological, and mark the transition to 
John. 

3. Christocentric Theology. John's Gospel and Epistles. 
The divine-human person of Christ, the highest manifestation 
of the love of God for the salvation of man, the sum and sub- 
stance of Christianity, the article of the standing or falling 
Church. This system affords a common ground of agreement 
for all evangelical catholic divines. God is known to us only 
in Christ. " No man cometh to the Father but by the Son " 
(John 14 : 6-10 ; Matt. 11 : 27). Christ is the first and funda- 
mental article of faith. It is the burden of Peter's confession 
(Matt. 16:16). Paul's preaching was summed up in "Jesus 
Christ, and him crucified" (1 Cor. 2 : 2), "delivered for our 
trespasses, and raised for our justification" (Rom. 4: 25). In 
Christ are "hid all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge" 



CHRISTOCENTRIC THEOLOGY. 363 

(Col. 2:3). When Paul was asked by the jailer of Philippi, 
"What must I do to be saved?" he did not say, "Believe in 
the Bible/' or "in the Church," or "in divine sovereignty," or 
" in justification and election," or in any other particular dogma, 
but simply, "Believe in the Lord Jesus, and thou shalt be 
saved" (Acts 16 : 31). The test of orthodoxy and heresy is the 
assertion or denial of Jesus Christ come in the flesh for our 
salvation (John 1 : 14 j 1 John 4 : 2). All other doctrines 
derive their significance from their connection with it. Chris- 
tian life starts with living faith in Christ, and its progress is 
growth in Christ. What is the foundation of Christian expe- 
rience should also be the ground of Christian theology. 

The Christocentric method does not require that Dogmatic 
should begin with Christology. The center is not the begin- 
ning, but it throws light on the beginning and the end. Christ- 
ology furnishes the key for theology and anthropology. It illu- 
minates the doctrine of eternal election "in Christ" (Eph. 1: 
4-6), and the doctrine of the future life when "we shall be like 
him " and " see him as he is " (1 John 3 : 2). It determines the 
doctrine of inspiration and the authority of the Bible, which re- 
flects the mystery of his personality all human and yet all divine. 
We believe in the Bible because we believe in Christ who is the 
light and life of the Bible. 

The Christocentric method may be combined with the trini- 
tarian method (adopted by Calvin and Martensen), which is 
based upon the Apostles' Creed, as the Apostles' Creed is only 
an expansion of Peter's confession with Christ in the center. 
The Creed follows the historical order of God's revelation as 
Father in creation, as Son in redemption, and as Holy Spirit in 
sanctification. The holy Trinity is the most comprehensive 
dogma, and is revealed to us fully in Christ, who explained the 
Father and sent the Spirit. The best theology is the theology 
of God's saving love in Christ to the world ; as the best Chris- 
tian ethic is that which enjoins, as the sum and substance of 
duty, supreme love to God and love to our neighbor. 

The best modern systems of evangelical theology in Europe 
and America are tending more and more toward the Christo- 
centric theology. 

Note. — Henry B. Smith struck the keynote of Christocentric theology 
in America, but did not live to carry it out. " The central idea, " he says, 
"to which all the parts of theology are to be referred, and by which the 



364 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

system is to be made a system, or to be constructed, is what we have 
termed the Christological or Mediatorial idea, viz., that God was in Christ 
reconciling the world unto himself. This idea is central not in the sense 
that all the other parts of theology are logically deduced from it, but rather 
that they center in it. The idea is that of an Incarnation in order to Re- 
demption. This is the central idea of Christianity, as distinguished, or 
distinguishable, from all other religions, and from all sorts of philosophy ; 
and by this, and this alone, are we able to construct the whole system of 
the Christian faith on its proper grounds. This idea is the proper center 
of unity to the whole Christian system, as the soul is the center of unity 
to the body, as the North Pole is to all the magnetic needles. It is so 
really the center of unity that when we analyze and grasp and apply it, 
we find that the whole of Christian theology is in it" {System of Christian 
Theology, p. 341). Among Smith's papers was found this remarkable pas- 
sage, which shows that he had virtually surmounted Calvinistic Predesti- 
narianism : "What Eeformed theology has got to do is to christologize 
predestination and decrees, regeneration and sanctifieation, the doctrine of 
the Church, and the whole of eschatology." 

Schleiermacher, Liebner, Lange, Thomasius, Gess, Ritschl, Godet, Nevin, 
Smith, Stearns, and Gerhart may be called, as to their spirit and tendency, 
Christocentric theologians. Comp. Schaffs Introduction to Gerhart's In- 
stitutes of the Christian Religion (1891). 



CHAPTER CCXXII. 

HISTORY OF DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. — THE PATRISTIC PERIOD. 

In the history of Dogmatic Theology we may distinguish six 
principal periods : the Patristic, the Mediaeval-Scholastic, the 
Reformatory, the Protestant-Scholastic, the Rationalistic, and 
the modern Evangelical. Each period makes some contribu- 
tion to the knowledge of revealed truth. The Christian doc- 
trines are first produced or evolved by the aid of reason out 
of the Scriptures, the faith of the Church, and the religious ex- 
perience ; then analyzed and systematized ; then criticised and 
dissolved, but only to be revived and reconstructed in new and 
better forms. Thus the process of Christian thought will go 
on to the end of time and present the Christian truth in all its 
aspects, without being able to exhaust its depth in this imper- 
fect world of limited knowledge. For we shall always have to 
confess, with the inspired Apostle, that we here see in a mir- 
ror darkly and know only in part till we shall see face to face 
(1 Cor. 13 : 12). 

The Patristic period, embracing the first eight centuries, de- 



HISTORY OF DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. 365 

veloped, in a natural order, the several doctrines of the Bible : 
first, theology proper (the Divine unity and tripersonality), and 
Christology (the divine-human personality of Christ) ; then 
anthropology and soteriology (sin and redemption). The 
former was the work of the Greek, the latter the work of the 
Latin Church. 

1. The first attempt at a systematic representation of the 
whole body of Christian truth was made by Origen (185-254), 
the greatest genius and scholar of his age. He was a Christian 
Platonist, the father of speculative theology, and also the 
father of exegesis and of the allegorical interpretation and 
misinterpretation of the Scriptures. He exerted a command- 
ing influence on all the Greek divines, but his Platonic ideas 
provoked opposition during his life-time and were at last con- 
demned by a local council of Constantinople in 543 (not, as is 
often falsely stated, by the fifth oecumenical council of 553). 
The Roman Church never admitted him to the rank of the 
saints and the orthodox Fathers. 

His dogmatic work Be Principiis (Ilepl 'Apx&v) * is built upon 
the freedom of the will and the prehistoric fall of each individ- 
ual soul, and ends in the final restoration of all rational creat- 
ures, men and angels (aTroKardoraoig t&v navTov). He assumed 
a succession of worlds before and after the present one, since 
God reveals himself from eternity to eternity. 

His ablest and most faithful follower was Gregory of Nyssa, 
a profound thinker of the Nicene age (331-394). f 

The great Athanasius is "the father of orthodoxy." % 

The last dogmatic work of the Greek Fathers is the Exposi- 
tion of the Orthodox Faith, by St. John of Damascus, the cham- 
pion of image worship (d. after 750). He summed up the results 
of the doctrinal controversies of the Nicene and post-Nicene 
ages from the works of Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, 
Gregory of Nyssa, Cyril of Alexandria, and Maximus ; he con- 
structed them into a scholastic system with the help of Aris- 
totle and the mystic Pseudo-Dionysius, and furnished a clas- 

* Preserved in the paraphrastic and inaccurate Latin translation of 
Rufinus (and some Greek fragments) ; English translation by Dr. Crombie 
in the "Ante-Nicene Library" (New York ed., vol. iv.). 

t Translated for the first time by W. Moore and H. A. Wilson in the 
second series of the "Nicene and Post-Nicene Library," vol. v. (1893). 

X English translation of his chief works in the 4th vol. of the " Library " 
just quoted (1892). He is the defender of the Nicene dogma of the Trinity. 



366 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

sical standard work which enjoys the same authority in the 
orthodox Greek and Russian Church as the " Summa " of 
Thomas Aquinas in the Latin. (See chapter ccx.) 

2. By far the greatest and most influential divine among the 
Latin Fathers is St. Augustin, bishop of Hippo in North Africa 
(353-430). He meditated and speculated profoundly and de- 
voutly on almost every topic of faith and philosophy, espe- 
cially on the dark problem of sin, the eternal purpose of God, 
and the final outcome of history. He ascended the highest 
heights and sounded the deepest depths of divine and human 
knowledge and of Christian experience. 

His chief dogmatic works are the Enchiridion, a handbook 
on faith, hope and love ; Four Books De Doctrina Christiana, sl 
compendium of instruction in the development of Christian 
doctrine from the Holy Scripture ; Fifteen Books on the Holy 
Trinity, against the Arians j and the comprehensive apologetic 
work on the City of Ood, which is the first attempt at a phi- 
losophy of history viewed under the aspect of two antagonistic 
kingdoms. His doctrines of sin and grace are developed in his 
anti-Pelagian writings and constitute what is usually called 
"the Augustinian system," which was substantially adopted by 
the Reformers. In Christology he was less productive* 

Augustin' s system is the very reverse of that of Origen. 
Both battle with the problems of sin and redemption; but 
Origen starts from the freedom of the will and the prehistoric 
fall of every soul, Augustin, from the single sin of a single 
man and the slavery of the will. Origen ends with the final 
salvation of all men ; Augustin with the eternal salvation of 
an elect minority and the eternal damnation of the vast major- 
ity of the human race, including all unbaptized infants. Sin 
was permissively decreed from eternity and overruled for the 
redemption of the elect, in whom God reveals the glory of his 
grace, and for the damnation of the reprobate, in whom he 
shows the glory of his terrible justice. The freedom of will 
was lost after its first exercise, and gave way to the slavery of 
sin or the necessity of sinning, from which we can only be de- 
livered by the regenerative grace of Christ. Augustin suspends 
the temporal and eternal destiny of mankind upon the fall of 
Adam, viewed as the fall of the whole race. He assumes an 

* English translation of his works by several writers in Schaff' s " Nicene 
and Post-Nicene Library," first series (New York, 1886-88, in 8 vols.). 



HISTORY OF DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. 3G7 

unconscious yet responsible preexistence of all men in their 
first parent, and derives from it their consequent participation 
in His sin and guilt. This hypothesis of a generic preexist- 
ence at the beginning of history transcends our experience as 
much as Origen's Platonic hypothesis of a prehistoric individual 
preexistence, and is less reconcilable with personal responsibil- 
ity. It is based on a false interpretation of Rom. 5 : 12* 

The unity and solidarity of the race in sin and redemption 
is indeed taught in Rom. 5 : 12-21 • 1 Cor. 15 : 21, 22, and is sus- 
tained by philosophy and history. But so is also the equally 
important doctrine of individual responsibility. Moreover, the 
consequences of the sin of the first Adam are more than coun- 
terbalanced by the righteousness of the second Adam. Paul 
teaches that " where sin abounded, grace did much more abound." 
We are born into a dispensation of saving grace as well as 
of sin and death. Christ welcomes children as belonging 
to the kingdom of heaven. To send them to hell in conse- 
quence of a sin they never heard of, is a doctrine which shocks 
the reason and all the moral sensibilities of man, and is incon- 
sistent with divine justice. God is a loving Father as well as 
a Sovereign, and has made superabundant provision for the 
salvation of all his rational creatures on the sole condition of 
repentance and faith. 

Augustin's anthropology is pessimistic and only partially 
relieved by a limited plan of salvation, however glorious. He 
ignores the general love of God to all mankind (John 3 : 16), 
his sincere will to save all men (1 Tim. .2:4; 2 Pet. 3:9), 
and the universality of the atonement (1 John 2:2). His doc- 
trine of an absolute double predestination which immutably 
fixes all human events and actions, and his total denial of 
human freedom, seem, logically, destructive of moral respon- 
sibility ; and yet, by a happy inconsistency, Augustinians and 



* Following the wrong translation of the Vulgate, Augustin misunder- 
stands the neutral phrase, kip' u (for that), in the masculine sense, in quo (in 
whom), and refers it to Adam. Be Pecc. Mer. et Rem., iii. 7: "In Adamo 
omnes tunc peccaverunt, quando in ejus natura, ilia insita vi qua eos gignere 
poterat, adhuc omnes ille unus fuerunt." Contra Jul., v. 12 : "Fuerunt omnes 
ratione seminis in lumbis Adami quando damnatus est . . . quemadmodum 
fuerunt Israelite in lumbis Abraham, quando decimatus est" (Heb. 7: 9, 10). 
Opus imperf i. 47: " Fuit Adam, et in illo fuimus omnes; periit Adam, et 
in illo omnes perierunt." Comp. on this exegetical question and the doc- 
trinal inferences, my annotations to Lange's Comm. on Bomans, pp. 178 sqq. 
and 191 sqq. 



368 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Jansenists, Calvinists and Puritans have always been the 
strictest moralists; and Calvinists have also been the chief 
promoters of civil and religious liberty in Holland, England 
and America ; their fear of God made them fearless of man. 

Augustin controlled the Christian thinking of the Latin 
Church during the Middle Ages ; but he was entirely ignored 
by the Greek Church, which adheres to the doctrine of the free- 
dom of the will. He is still justly revered by the Roman 
Church as the greatest among the Fathers, but she has never 
sanctioned his doctrines of absolute predestination and the 
slavery of the human will, and has, indirectly, condemned them 
by condemning Jansenism. The Evangelical Churches, on the 
contrary, have adopted his anti-Pelagian anthropology, but 
ignored his opinions which gave aid and comfort to the Roman 
theology. 

Augustin may be quoted on both sides of the Protestant con- 
troversy with Rome. He is the author of the theory which sanc- 
tions the right and duty of religious persecution, and based 
it upon a false interpretation of the words, " Compel them to 
come in n (Luke 14 : 23, which would lead to a compulsory sal- 
vation rather than persecution). He suggested some of the 
most objectionable doctrines of the Roman Church, as purga- 
tory (on the ground of Matt. 12 : 31, 32 ; 1 Cor. 3 : 15), the sin- 
lessness of the Virgin Mary,* and even papal infallibility. t 
He furnishes the most remarkable example, in history, of a 
man of the greatest genius and deepest piety, who blessed the 
Church with his truths and hindered its progress by his errors. 

CHAPTER CCXXIII. 

THE SCHOLASTIC PERIOD. 

The second period of Dogmatic Theology extends from the 
twelfth to the close of the fifteenth century. 

Scholastic theology is the theology of the Schoolmen as dis- 

* Speaking of universal depravity (De Nat. et Gratia, chapter lxii.), he 
excepts the Virgin Mary, "concerning whom" (he says) "I wish to raise 
no question concerning sin, out of honor to the Lord." 

t The sentence often quoted by Romanists, "Boma locuta est, causa finita 
est," though not literally found in Augustin's works, is substantially his. 
Sermo, cxxxi., cap. 10, § 10 : "Jam enim de liac causa duo concilia missa sunt 
ad sedem apostolicam : inde etiam scripta venerunt. Causa finita est, utinam 
aliquando error finiatur." But he had reference to the single case of the 
condemnation of Pelagius, not to a general principle. He himself pro- 



THE SCHOLASTIC PERIOD. 369 

tinct from the Fathers, and reduces their doctrines to a scien- 
tific system. It is an attempt or series of attempts to reconcile 
revelation and reason, faith and philosophy. It is bnilt npon 
the Bible and the Fathers. Its principle is that faith precedes 
knowledge (fides prcecedit intellect um), bnt that it also leads to 
knowledge and is confirmed by knowledge (credo at intelligam). 
Some trace Scholasticism back to Scotns Erigena, the first dis- 
tinguished Irish divine, who lived in France in the middle of 
the ninth century. He was a transcendental, pantheistic phi- 
losopher, and was not understood by his age ; else he would 
have been burnt as a heretic. He taught, in his Division of 
Nature, the identity of philosophy and theology, and introduced 
into the Latin Church a translation of the mystic writings of 
Pseudo-Dionysius, which exerted great influence on the School- 
men and Mystics of the Middle Ages * 

Anselm of Canterbury (d. 1109), " the second Augustin," 
gave the first splendid specimens of the scholastic method by 
proving the existence of God (Monologion and Proslogion) and 
the necessity of the incarnation and the vicarious atonement 
(in answer to the question Our Dens homo f). He was a Realist 
and refuted the Nominalism of Roscellin. 

Peter Abelard (1079-1142), who is as well known by his 
erotic tragedy in the history of romance as of philosophy and 
theology, represents the skeptical and rationalistic type of scho- 
lasticism. He applied his dialectic skill and audacity to the 
doctrine of the Trinity, and was condemned for heresy by the 
Council of Sens (1141) under the influence of St. Bernard, the 
champion of orthodox mysticism and the greatest saint of his 
age. But after this conflict, Scholasticism became a pillar of 
orthodoxy. 

Peter the Lombard, " Magister Sententiarum " (d. 1164), and 
his commentators, called Sententiarii, covered the whole ground 
of doctrinal theology and constructed from the sentences of 
the Fathers coherent systems, illuminating every nook and cor- 
ner and answering every question. The dialectal method was 
further developed with the aid of the Aristotelian philosophy 

tested against the decision of Pope Zosinms. Comp. the learned discussion 
of Reuter, in Augustinische Studien, pp. 322 sqq. 

* He was not only a profound thinker, but also a bright wit. When 
asked by Bang Charles the Bald of France at the dinner-table, "What 
is the difference between a Scot and a sot?" (Quid distat inter Scotum et 
sottum?) the Scotch-Irishman quickly replied: "The table (tabula), your 
Majesty." 



370 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

which became known, during the crusades, in translations from 
the Arabic, and afterwards in the original Greek. Aristotle 
was first suspected and opposed, but soon took the place of 
Plato, as a forerunner of Christ, or as a philosophical John the 
Baptist. He kept his authority as the master-thinker till he 
was dethroned by Luther, who denounced him as an " accursed 
heathen," but he was soon reinstated by Melanchthon and the 
Protestant Scholastics. 

Scholasticism reached its height in Thomas Aquinas, " Doctor 
Angelicus n (d. 1274), of the Dominican order, who is to this day 
the standard divine of the Eoman Church (specially commended 
by Leo XIII.), and in his contemporary, Bonaventura; "Doctor 
Seraphicus" (d. 1274), of the Franciscan order, who combined 
mysticism with scholasticism. The later Schoolmen were 
divided into two rival schools: the followers of Thomas 
Aquinas, who were Dominicans, and were called " Thomists " 
or a Summists" (Summistce, from Summa Theologian), and the 
followers of Duns Scotus, " Doctor Subtilis" (d. 1308), who were 
Franciscans, and were called " Scotists." 

The decline of Scholasticism began with the skeptical William 
Occam (d. 1347), who dared to renew the philosophical heresy 
of Nominalism, hence called " verier abilis inceptor" also "Doctor 
singularis et mvincibilis." The last eminent Schoolmen were 
Gabriel Biel of Tubingen, a Nominalist (d. 1495), and Cardinal 
Cajetan, a standard commentator of the Summa of Thomas 
Aquinas, who confronted Luther at Augsburg in 1518 and 
judged of this arch-heretic that he had " profundos oculos et 
mirabiles speculationes in capite suoP * 

The scholastic systems are majestic cathedrals of thought, and 
f urnish a parallel to the contemporary papal hierarchy and to 
the structures of Gothic architecture. The Schoolmen mirrored 
all the learning and wisdom of the times. They solved the high- 
est problems of speculation to the satisfaction of the mediaeval 
Church, but they attempted too much and lost themselves at 
last in the labyrinth of empty speculations and hair-splitting 
distinctions. They turned theology into a logical skeleton. 
They squeezed the soul out of it and left it a mere corpse {cor- 
pus divinitatis). They neglected the study of the Scriptures, 

* CajetaVs commentaries on Thomas Aquinas are reprinted in the mag- 
nificent edition of the Opera S. Thomce Aquinatis, published under the 
patronage of Leo XIII. (1882 sqq.). 



THE THEOLOGY OF THE REFORMATION. 371 

but discussed with great seriousness such silly questions as 
how many angels could dance on the eye of a needle, and what 
effect the sacrament would have upon a mouse. Some an- 
swered that the sacred wafer would sanctify the mouse ; others, 
that it would kill it ; still others answered more wisely, because 
less foolishly, that it would have no effect at all, because the 
wafer could be eaten by an animal only accidentaliter, not 
sacramentaliter. 

Thus Scholasticism by the abuse and excess of speculation 
dug its own grave, and provoked the double opposition of 
mysticism, which cultivated spiritual piety, and the skepticism 
of the Renaissance, which undermined traditional beliefs and 
superstitions. 

The best scholars of the fifteenth century called for a biblical 
theology and a return to the living waters of the original Script- 
ures. Reuchlin and Erasmus promoted the study of the original 
languages. Melanchthon and Zwingli carried the best elements 
of the humanistic culture into the service of the Reformation. 

But the Roman Church, after recovering from the shock of 
the Reformation, revived the patristic and scholastic theology, 
sanctioned it in the Council of Trent (1563), defended and 
further developed it in opposition to Protestantism, Jansenism, 
and Gallicanism, until it was completed in 1870 by the Vatican 
dogma of papal infallibility. (See chapter ccxi.) 

CHAPTER CCXXIV. 

THE THEOLOGY OF THE REFORMATION. 

The evangelical theology of the Reformers of the sixteenth 
century is a revival of biblical theology in opposition to 
Roman Scholasticism. It is built upon an infallible Bible, as 
Scholasticism was built upon an infallible Church. 

Luther, the first and greatest among the Reformers, was a 
prophet rather than a systematic thinker and theologian. He 
passed in the convent at Erfurt through a severe personal ex- 
perience of sin and justification, which shaped his theological 
views, and he developed them gradually, in constant conflict with 
papists and " sacramentarians," under the inspiration of the 
moment, without regard to their coherence ; leaving the system- 
atic and scholarly statement to his more learned and moderate 



372 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

friend and colleague, Melanchthon, whose Loci Theologici (1521 ; 
last revised ed. 1559) was used for nearly a century as a text- 
book in Lutheran universities. 

Zwingli laid down his dogmatic system in the Commentarius 
de Vera et Falsa Religione (1525), in Fidei Ratio ad Carolum V. 
(1530), and in Christians Fidei brevis et clara Fxpositio ad Fran- 
ciscum I. (1531), and his view on predestination in the tract 
De Providentia (1530). They were far surpassed in depth, com- 
pleteness and literary finish by the Institutio of Calvin (Basel, 
1536 ; 5th revised edition, Geneva, 1559). 

Calvin is beyond question the greatest commentator and 
dogmatic theologian among the Reformers. He has been called 
the Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas of the Reformed Church.* 
He fortified and intensified the Augustinian system by his 
severe logic and unrivaled knowledge of the Scripture, but he 
liberalized it also by making the electing and saving grace of 
God independent of the visible means, and extending it beyond 
the limits of baptized members of the Church. The Spirit of 
God is not bound, and " worketh when, and where, and how he 
pleaseth," as the Westminster Confession (ch. x. 3) expresses 
the Calvinistic view. A most important advance beyond the 
Augustinian and Roman Catholic exclusiveness. It is not in- 
consistent with John 3 : 5, which seems to make water- baptism 
a necessary condition of salvation ; for this applies only to the 
ordinary method for those who are brought to a knowledge of 
the gospel, and must be supplemented by our Lord's blessing 
of unbaptized children as members of the kingdom of heaven, 
and by the fact that the penitent thief and all the Old Testa- 
ment saints were saved without baptism. 

Zwingli, the most liberal among the Reformers, had ventured 
a step further, and positively asserted the salvation of all chil- 
dren dying before the age of responsibility, and of the virtuous 
heathen who live up to the light of nature. This view was 
a natural result of his enthusiasm for the classics, in which 
Erasmus had preceded him. He was also the only Reformer 
who departed from the Augustinian hamartology and taught 
that natural depravity, inherited from Adam, was a disease 
and misfortune, rather than a sin and guilt. His view on the 
Lord's Supper was a still greater departure from the tradi- 

* See the judgments in SchafiPs Church History, vol. vii., pp. 270-295. 



THE THEOLOGY OF THE REFORMATION. 373 

tional belief in the real presence, but fails to appreciate the 
deep mystical element of the sacrament. He was a rational 
supernaturalist, and anticipated modern opinions. 

On two fundamental doctrines all the Reformers agreed : 
first, that the word of God contained in the Bible is the only 
infallible rule of faith and duty; second, that we are saved 
by the free grace of Grod in Christ without any merit of our 
own. These are the two vital and fundamental principles of 
evangelical Protestantism in opposition both to Romanism and 
Rationalism. 

The fresh productive theology of the Reformation was fol- 
owed by the scholastic Lutheranism and Calvinism of the 
seventeenth century, which corresponds to the Catholic Scho- 
lasticism of the Middle Ages, and shares its virtues and defects, 
but adheres more closely to the Bible under a rigid theory of 
inspiration by mechanical dictation of every letter. It degener- 
ated into bibliolatry and symbololatry, and a dead orthodoxy. 
This provoked various reactions — Arminianism in Holland, 
Pietism in Germany, Methodism in England, and at last the 
destructive critique of Rationalism which swept over the whole 
Continent. But as the mediseval Renaissance prepared the way 
for the Reformation, so Rationalism was succeeded by the re- 
vival of evangelical theology. 

These modern schools have been sufficiently characterized in 
the preceding chapters. There remains only the American 
development of Protestant theology, which is little known, and 
yet deserves our special attention. 

LITERATURE. 

G-. J. Planck: GescliicJite der Entsteliung, der Verdnderungen und der 
Bildung unsers Protestantisclien Lehrbegriffs (Leipzig, 1791-1800, 6 vols.). 
The most learned work on the doctrinal controversies in the Lutheran 
Church till the Formula of Concord. 

W. Gass : GescMchte der Protestantisclien Dogmatik in ihrem Zusammen- 
liang mit der Tlieologie uberhaupt (Berlin, 1854-67, 4 vols.). 

K. F. A. Kahnis : Der innere Gang des deutschen Protestantismus (Leip- 
zig, 3d. rev. ed. 1874). 

G. W. Frank : GescliicJite der Protestantisclien Tlieologie (Leipzig, 1862-75, 
3 parts). 

Is. A. Dorner : Gesclnclite der Protestantisclien Tlieologie (Munchen, 1867 ; 
English translation, Edinburgh, 1871, 2 vols.). 

Otto Pfleiderer : Die Entwicldung der Protestantisclien Tlieologie in 
Deutscliland seit Kant und in Grossbritannien seit 1825 (Freiburg i.B., 1891 ; 
also in English). 



374 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

CHAPTER CCXXV. 

AMERICAN THEOLOGY. 

[American Theology is ignored by German historians except Dorner, 
who devotes to it a few remarks at the end of his work. Even Dr. Shedd, 
in his History of Christian Doctrine (1863, 2 vols.), "barely alludes to it. 
Contributions : Henry B. Smith, additions to Hagenbach's History of Doc- 
trines, vol. ii., pp. 435-452 (New York, 1862) ; and Chronological Tables 
(New York, 1860). Edwards A. Park : New England Theology, in " Schaff- 
Herzog," vol. iii., 1634-38; and separate articles on New England divines 
in the same Encyclopsedia. Geo. P. Fisher : Discussions in History and 
Theology (New York, 1880, pp. 227 sqq.). Other works are quoted below.] 

America welcomes all nationalities and creeds of Europe and 
gives them equal freedom before the law. It knows no dis- 
tinction between Chnrch and Sects, between Churchmen and 
Dissenters. 

Nevertheless it adheres very closely to the inherited and 
imported creeds. It may be strange, but it is true, that "the 
westward course of empire " is a course of orthodoxy rather 
than heresy. England is more orthodox than the Continent, 
New England is more orthodox than Old England, the Western 
and Southern States are more orthodox than the Eastern States. 
The Roman Catholic, the Protestant Episcopal, the Presby- 
terian, the Congregational, the Lutheran, the Dutch and Ger- 
man Reformed, and other Churches are more conservative in 
theology, while they are more progressive in every other depart- 
ment of Christian life and activity than their mother Churches 
in Europe. Professors of rationalistic tendency and champions 
of radical biblical criticism, who enjoy the full freedom of aca- 
demic teaching in German, Swiss and Dutch universities, could 
not be elected to a chair in any of our theological seminaries, 
not even in the Divinity School of Harvard University. Church 
and theology are much more closely identified in a free Church 
which supports and governs itself, than in a State Church which 
is supported and governed by the civil power. Heresy trials 
have ceased in Protestant Europe, but not in America. 

Calvinism and Arminianism have been so far the ruling 
theological systems in American Theology. Unitarianism or 
modern Socinianism is a native growth of New England, but 
is confined to a limited circle among the cultured classes of 



THE CALVINISTIC THEOLOGY IN AMERICA. 375 

Boston and other large cities. Universalism, as an organized 
denomination, is also an American product. More recently 
German Theology, as developed since Schleiermacher, is exert- 
ing a growing influence, especially in exegesis and Church 
history. 

Out of these different forces will grow new systems of theol- 
ogy adapted to the cosmopolitan and pan-Christian composition 
and destiny of the United States. 

Notes. 

"Christian Theology in America," says Henry B. Smith, "has received 
some peculiar modifications adapting it to the new position and relations 
of the Church. Its most marked and original growth has been in the line 
of the Reformed or Calvinistic system. The separation of the Church from 
the State, the unexampled immigration, and the rapid growth of the country, 
made the pressure to come upon the practical rather than the theoretical 
aspects of Christian truth. Hence, the most thorough discussions and con- 
troversies have been chiefly upon questions of anthropology and soteriology. 
Systems of theology have all been preached. Controversy, too, has been 
sharpened by the fact that in the New World are representatives of all the 
ecclesiastical divisions of the Old World, with many sectarian subdivisions. 
The minor sects in Europe have had the sway in America." — Hagenbach's 
History of Doctrines (Am. edition, vol. ii., p. 435). 

Dr. Dorner concludes his History of Protestant Tlieology (p. 918) with the 
following judicious remarks : ' 'A?neriJca stelit noch in seinen theologischen 
Anfdngen, aber die Zukunft des Protestantismus Jidngt grossentheils von der 
iveiteren EntwicMung dieses Jcrdftigen, nunmehr audi von dem Banne der 
Sclaverei defreiten VolJces ab ; daher die Erhaltung und Mehrung des Ver- 
Jcehres mit dem deutschen Protestantismus und seinen Giitern von unberechen- 
barer Bedeutung ist. Jetzt ist die Zer splitter ung noch gross und der Gegensatz 
der Parteien oft mehr ein Spiel der Willkur und ausserer Interessen, als dass 
er zu ernstem ivissenschaftlichem Kampf gedielie. Aber je mehr der Sinn fur 
Wissenschaft zunimmt und mit ihr die Kraft des G.edankens, dem eine einig- 
ende Macht beiwohnt, weil er auf das Allgemeine und an sich Wahre gerichtet 
ist, desto mehr miissen von den dortigen Denominationen viele von selbst ver- 
schivinden, andere aber in einen Process der Verstdndigung eintreten, der 
ihnen eine gemeinsame Geschichte auch des geistigen und religiosen Lebens 
sichert, welche wie Grossbritannien ebenbilrtig und fruchtbar mit deutscher 
Wissenschaft wetteifern wird." 



CHAPTER CCXXVI. 

THE CALVINISTIC THEOLOGY IN AMERICA. 

The Reformed or Calvinistic Theology is the most potent 
and prolific in North America. It is not confined to a single 



376 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

denomination ; it rules, with various modifications, the Congre- 
gationalist, the Baptist, the Presbyterian, the Dutch and Ger- 
man Reformed Churches. Nearly all the advances have been 
made on this line. Calvinism was imported into this country 
by the early settlers of English-Puritan, Dutch, Huguenot, 
Scotch and Scotch-Irish descent. It regulated the religious 
life and shaped the character of the people of New England 
during the Colonial period (1620-1776), when the church and 
schoolhouse were the center of the town, the Bible the statute- 
book of the community, the pastor the watchman of public 
morals, the sermon the intellectual food and topic of conver- 
sation, and church membership the condition of citizenship. 
The theology and theocracy of Geneva were transplanted into 
the unbroken wilderness of Massachusetts and Connecticut, 
and became the training-school of the Fathers of the Anglo- 
Saxon Republic. 

The history of American Calvinism from the middle of the 
seventeenth to the close of the nineteenth century, first in pro- 
vincial isolation, then in national expansion, with its changes and 
" improvements n from extreme supralapsarianism to the verge 
of semi-Pelagianism, forms an interesting and as yet unwritten 
chapter in the history of scholastic theology. Compared with 
older forms of scholasticism, it shows the same power of log- 
ical distinction and minute analysis, but also the same danger 
of running into barren abstractions. Its first advocates were 
not secluded monks or learned professors, as in Europe, but 
pastors and preachers. Their sermons were theological lect- 
ures. Hence the close connection of theology with practical 
religion. Theology and the Church, the clergy and the people, 
are inseparable in America. 

We must distinguish between Puritan Calvinism, or New 
England Theology properly so called, and Presbyterian 
Calvinism which prevails in the middle, southern and western 
States. The former is of English-Puritan, the latter chiefly of 
Scotch and Scotch-Irish origin. Both are based upon the West- 
minster standards of 1647, which present the Scotch-English 
development of the Calvinism of Geneva and Dort. Both are 
divided into a conservative Old School and a progressive New 
School. 



NEW ENGLAND THEOLOGY. 377 

CHAPTER CCXXVII. 

NEW ENGLAND THEOLOGY. 

The New England divines paid chief attention to anthropol- 
ogy and soteriology, bnt neglected Christology and eschatology. 
They discnssed with great acnteness the freedom and slavery of 
the will, the difference between the will and the sensibilities, 
between native and natural depravity, between natural and 
moral ability and inability, the doctrine of mediate and im- 
mediate imputation, the nature of sin and holiness, the problem 
of sin in a moral universe and its necessity in the best system 
(Optimism), the character and extent of the atonement and its 
relation to divine justice. The eternal decrees, efficient and 
permissive, election and reprobation, foreordination and fore- 
knowledge, supralapsarianism and sublapsarianism, also occu- 
pied the devout attention of the Puritan Calvinists. Like 
Milton's fallen angels, 

" Sitting apart on a hill retired, they reasoned high 
Of providence, foreknowledge, will, and fate, 
Fixed fate, free will, foreknowledge absolute ; 
And found no end, in wandering mazes lost." * 

But the leading New England divines were by no means 
slavish followers of Dort and Westminster. They soften the 
Calvinistic system and endeavor to reconcile it with the prin- 
ciple of freedom and moral responsibility by a metaphysical 
distinction between natural and moral ability, and by affirming 
the former and denying the latter. They maintain that man 
has the natural ability to repent, to believe, and to keep the 
law, but that he will never use this power without the grace of 
God ; that he does not choose the wrong inevitably, but cer- 
tainly ; that he may fall away totally and finally, but that he 
w T ill not fall away because the grace of G-od will infallibly keep 
him. By asserting the natural ability or faculty, they ap- 
proach the Pelagian system.f By asserting with equal empha- 
sis the moral inability (a mild term for total depravity) they 

* Paradise Lost, Bk. II., 555. 

t Pelagius distinguished between posse (natural ability), relle, and esse 
(bonum), the power, the will, and the act : the first comes from God, the 
other two depend upon man's free choice (liberum arbitrium). 



378 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

agree with the Augustinian system. But a natural ability 
which is never exercised seems to be a mere abstraction * 

The first and ablest theologian of New England, and the 
greatest metaphysician of America, was Jonathan Edwards 
(1703-58), first pastor at Northampton, then missionary at 
Stockbridge, and at last for a few weeks president of the Pres- 
byterian College at Princeton. He may be called the American 
Calvin.f He was equally distinguished for metaphysical sub- 
tlety and devout piety. He had a vein of ardent mysticism (like 
other profound thinkers, as Augustin, Anselm, Thomas Aqui- 
nas, Bonaventura). Though far removed from the rich libraries 
of Europe, and often threatened by wild beasts and savage 
Indians, he meditated and wrote on some of the deepest prob- 
lems of thought, and left 1400 manuscripts neatly written 
and arranged by his own hand. While engaged in metaphys- 
ical speculations he preached powerful sermons and led, with 
Whitefield, "the Great Awakening" of 1740. 

He out-calvined Calvin in his awful descriptions of the 
sinfulness and guilt of sin, and the endless torments of the im- 
penitent. His imprecatory sermons (bearing such titles as 
" Wicked Men Useful in their Destruction Only," "The Sin- 
ners in the Hands of an Angry God n ) have scarcely a parallel 
in homiletteal literature and would not now be tolerated by 
any Christian congregation even in New England, but in his 
day they produced tears and outcries and sincere conversions. 
He believed in the corporeal roasting- theory of hell, and made 
it as hot as Dante's " Inferno." He describes God as holding the 
damned "over the pit of hell much as one holds a spider or 
some loathsome insect over the fire." J He repeatedly avows 
his belief that the great majority of mankind, including the 
whole heathen world, and large masses of Christendom with 
many members of his own congregation, were or will be lost 

* This distinction was first made by John Cameron of Glasgow, Profes- 
sor at Saumur (d. 1625), the teacher of Amyrault, whose hypothetical uni- 
versalism was disapproved in the Helvetic Consensus Formula (1675). 
Shedd rejects the distinction and charges Edwards with self-contradiction 
(Dogm. Theol, vol. ii., p. 219). But he substitutes for it another distinc- 
tion which amounts to the same thing, namely, between capability and 
ability, and asserts that the natural man "is capable of loving God supreme- 
ly, but not able to love him supremely." 

t He died, like Calvin, in the prime of manhood, in his fifty- fifth year. 

X When at college he made original and minute observations on the 
habits of spiders. 



NEW ENGLAND THEOLOGY. 379 

forever * The saints in glory are callous to the sufferings of 
the damned, though they be their fathers, mothers and chil- 
dren. They are absorbed in adoring wonder at the terrible 
justice of God toward the reprobate as well as at his mercy 
toward the elect. "Divine justice in the destruction of the 
wicked will appear as light without darkness and will shine as 
the sun without the clouds." But the prevailing severity of 
his preaching is broken somewhat by sweet tenderness and 
affecting appeals to emotion. "He had," says his best biog- 
rapher, who is not in sympathy with his theology, " the power 
of inspired appeal and exhortation. Refinement, dignity and 
strength, and always and everywhere a fresh and intense 
interest in his theme, make his sermons not only readable, 
but still forcible and impressive, as if the preacher were even 
yet standing in our midst. . . . Above the preacher, above 
the thinker, there towered also the majestic purity of the man 
entirely sincere and devoted — a character that seems well-nigh 
flawless; so that in his own age he was, if possible, more 
deeply revered as a Christian man than as the dauntless, 
unwearied champion of the Puritan theology." t 

Edwards defended Calvinism against Arminianism, which 
had crept into the New England churches during the time of the 
" Half -Way Covenant," through the writings of Daniel Whitby 
and John Taylor. His chief works in this line are on the Free- 

* " The bigger part of men," he says, "who have died heretofore have 
gone to hell " (see Allen, p. 124). This was the prevailing belief in Christen- 
dom till recent times, and is still the doctrine of the Roman Church, which 
makes water-baptism and Catholic Church membership a necessary con- 
dition of salvation. {Extra ecclesiam nulla solus is understood to mean 
extra ecclesiam Romanam.) The horrible doctrine of infant damnation was 
held in New England and incorporated in a popular poem, Tlie Poem of the 
Day of Doom, by the Eev. Michael Wiggles worth, of Maiden, Mass., a grad- 
uate and tutor of Harvard College (d. 1705). It was published in 1662, 
passed through six editions till 1715, and was reprinted as a curiosity by 
the American News Company, New York, 1867. God is represented there 
on the judgment day as reasoning with reprobate infants, who "from the 
womb unto the tomb were straightway carried." about the justice of their 
eternal damnation ; and in consideration of their lesser guilt, he assigns to 
them (like St. Augustin) "the easiest room in hell." A change began with 
the younger Edwards (Against Chauncy, xiv.), who denied that it is an 
article of his faith that "only a small part of the human race will finally 
be saved." Hopkins (Future State, v.) asserts that "there is reason to be- 
lieve that many more of mankind will be saved than lost ; yea, it may be 
many thousands to one." Drs. Hodge and Shedd go still farther (see next 
chapter). On the subject of infant salvation there is probably now abso- 
lute unanimity among Protestant divines of America. 

t Allen (Episcopalian), pp. 104, 105. 



380 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

dom of the Will (1754) and on Original Sin (1758). He starts 
from the absolute sovereignty of God, and finds the last end 
of creation in the revelation of his glory, not, as the Armin- 
ians, in the happiness of his creatures, which he makes only 
a subordinate aim. He vindicates with subtle logic Locke's 
determinism and the prior certainty of all choices by antece- 
dent causes or motives. Herein he differs from Augustin and 
Calvin, who gave to Adam the liberty of choice, which was lost 
by the fall. He makes every man responsible for Adam's sin, 
not by the federal theory of representation, but by the theory 
of identity. We are identical with Adam in his nature and con- 
stitution, and therefore identified with him in sin and guilt. 
Adam is not the federal head, but the generic type and root 
of humanity. Every man comes into this world with the 
nature of Adam and falls like him by a permissive decree of 
God. And this is called original sin. Adam's sin is not 
imputed to us until we consent to it by voluntary sinning. 
All sin is voluntary and so far a free act, and yet inevitable. 
It is difficult to evade the logical conclusion that God is the 
author of sin, and that sin is necessary. 

Edwards makes the metaphysical distinction between nat- 
ural ability and moral inability, by which he tried to main- 
tain a certain kind of freedom of the will with the denial 
of it. Hence his constant pathetic appeals to the will to 
repent and to escape the impending danger by accepting 
Christ. He urged his hearers to take the kingdom of heaven 
by violence. But this freedom is "a deus ex machina ready 
to relieve the theological situation when the stress became 
unendurable." 

The central idea of his Ethic (On the Nature of Virtue) is 
holy love, as the gift of irresistible divine grace. He defines 
the nature of virtue as "love to Being in general," or disin- 
terested benevolence. What he calls " Being" is God, as the 
most sacred and awful of realities, like " the Substance " of 
Spinoza. God should be loved first of all for his infinite ex- 
istence and intrinsic excellence, without regard to what he has 
done for us. Spinoza says, " He who loves God must not de- 
mand that God should love him in turn." But love is the very 
essence of God (1 John 4 : 16). " In making the motive of true 
virtue consist in devotion to an Infinite Being, Edwards marks 
the beginning of a transition in the Calvinistic churches to a 



NEW ENGLAND THEOLOGY. 381 

theology in which love is the central principle of the creation, 
and the law of all created existence." * 

Another great work of Edwards is the History of Redemption 
(posthumously published, 1774). It was intended to be an in- 
troduction to a comprehensive system of theology which he did 
not finish. 

His intention was to strengthen Calvinism by his metaphys- 
ical and ethical speculations, but in effect he weakened it as a 
theological system.f 

The Followers of Edwards. 

The writings of Edwards created a school of divines called 
" Edwardeans," or "New Theology Men" or "New Lights." 
They emphatically asserted the Calvinistic doctrine of divine 
sovereignty and election, but generally discarded the imputa- 
tion of Adam's sin and guilt to his posterity, and advocated a 
universal, instead of a limited atonement. 

* Allen, p. 314. 

t Editions of his Works, published at Worcester, Mass., 1809, 8 vols, 
(republished in New York, 1847, in 4 vols.), and by Dwight, New York, 
1830, 10 vols, (also a London ed., 1817, and an Edinburgh ed., 1847). See 
his biography in Dwight's ed. ; Alex. V. G. Allen, Jonathan Edwards, 
Boston, 1889 (in the series of " American Eeligious Leaders"); and Dr. 
Park, in the Schaff-Herzog Encycl. (vol. ii., pp. 697 sqq. ). Park says : " Ed- 
wards did more, perhaps, than any other American divine in promoting 
the doctrinal purity, and at the same time quickening the zeal, of the 
churches ; in restraining them from fanaticism, and at the same time stim- 
ulating them to a healthy enthusiasm. His writings were in his own day, 
and are in our day, a kind of classic authority for discriminating between 
the warmth of sound health and the heat of a fever. He did not remain 
stationary, like the center of a circle ; he moved in an orbit not eccentric, 
but well-rounded and complete." Robert Hall considered Edwards "the 
greatest of the sons of men." Dr. Chalmers recommended his treatise on 
the Will as the best defense of Calvinism. Allen, a liberal Episcopalian, 
discriminates between Edwards, who " asserted God at the expense of 
humanity," and Edwards the seer, who beheld by direct vision what others 
knew only by report. "Among the great names," he says, "in America 
of the last century, the only other which competes in celebrity with his 
own is that of Benjamin Franklin, who labored for this world as assidu- 
ously as Edwards for another world" (p. 385). 

Edwards was well known through his writings in his age by British 
divines who called American theology "Edwardean Theology," but was 
almost unknown on the Continent till quite recently. I learned his name 
first from Dr. Park when he studied at Berlin in 1843, and I sug- 
gested to Dr. Herzog, who had never heard of him, to secure a contribu- 
tion from Dr. Park or Dr. Stowe in Andover for his " Real-Enclyklopsedie." 
This is the origin of the article "Edwards," by Stowe, which appeared in 
the first edition of that great work (1854), and passed unaltered into the 
second edition (vol. iv., pp. 44-50), retaining a reference to Leonard Woods 
and Lyman Beecher as the living representatives of the two wings of the 
Edwardean School, although they had died years before. 



382 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

The principal phases through which Edwardeanism passed 
may be designated as Hopkinsianism, Emmonsism, Taylorism 
and Parkism. 

The younger Jonathan Edwards * (1745-1801, president of 
Union College, Schenectady, N. Y.) edited his father's works 
and credits him with "ten improvements" on the older Calvin- 
ism. He modified the Anselmic view of the atonement, and 
elaborated what is called after him " the Edwardean theory/ 7 
which substantially agrees with the governmental theory of 
Grotius, that the atonement is a satisfaction to the public jus- 
tice of God as a moral governor.! 

Samuel Hopkins (1721-1803), a student of Jonathan Edwards, 
pastor at Newport, R. I., and one of the earliest advocates of 
the abolition of slavery and the slave-trade, matured a complete 
system of theology called " Hopkinsianism." J It does not mate- 
rially differ from that of Edwards. He equally enforced the 
divine sovereignty and the obligation of immediate repentance. 
He held that sin is the necessary means to the greatest good 
and is overruled for the advantage of the universe. § He re- 
solved all sin into selfishness, and taught that all actions, even 
the prayers, of impenitent men are sinful, repentance being a 
prior duty. Hence it is wrong to exhort men to pray for 
their own conversion. 

He is best known by his theory of virtue. He carried Ed- 
wards's view of love, as disinterested benevolence, to the extent 

* Called Doctor Edwards, in distinction from his father, President Ed- 
wards. The College of New Jersey, at Princeton, where he was graduated 
in 1765, conferred on him the degree of D.D. See Park, in the Schaff- 
Herzog Encycl., vol. ii., pp. 699-701. Emmons said of the two Edwardses : 
' ' The father had more reason than his son, but the son was a greater rea- 
soner than his father." 

t See E. A. Park, The Atonement : Discourses and Treatises, by Edwards, 
Smalley, Emmons, etc., with an Introductory Essay (of 80 pp.), Boston, 1860 ; 
also the introduction of Frank H. Foster (a pupil of Park) to his edition 
of the famous essay of Grotius, On the Satisfaction of Christ (Andover, 
1889, pp. xlv. sqq.). 

X System of Doctrines contained in Divine Revelation (1793, 3 vols. ; 
2ded., Boston, 1811, 2 vols.). Best edition of his Works, with a Biograph- 
ical Memoir "by Dr. Park (Boston, 1852, 3 vols.). See also Park's article, 
"Hopkinsianism," in Schaff-Herzog, vol. ii., p. 102. Hopkins is the 
hero of The Minister's Wooing, a theological novel "by Mrs. Harriet Beecher 
Stowe, who, herself a daughter of the Puritans, describes the lights and 
shades of Puritan theology and piety, and contrasts them with the infi- 
delity and immorality of Aaron Burr, the unworthy grandson of Jonathan 
Edwards. 

§ The title of his first work is Sin through the Divine Interposition an 
Advantage to the Universe. 



NEW ENGLAND THEOLOGY. 383 

of unconditional submission and willingness to be damned for- 
ever for the glory of God. A similar view was held by Fenelon 
and Madame Guy on. It is a noble error, which rests on a 
literal misinterpretation of the wish of Paul (Rom. 9:3), and 
ignores the inseparable connection of love and happiness. 

Nathaniel Emmons (1745-1840), for fifty-four years pastor 
of a Congregational Church at Franklin, Mass. (which he made 
a parish of theologians), and teacher of a hundred candidates 
for the ministry, was one of the chief advocates of Hopkinsian- 
ism, and one of the most original divines of Puritan New Eng- 
land. He held to verbal inspiration and literal interpretation. 
He strongly believed in the Trinity and the divinity of Christ, 
but irreverently called the Nicene doctrine of the eternal 
generation of the Son " eternal nonsense." He said : " Strict 
Calvinism brings God near to us; all opposing systems put 
him far away." He made the "five points" of this sys- 
tem, with the exception of limited atonement, the staple of his 
sermons, and even declared belief in the decree of reproba- 
tion to be necessary to salvation. He pressed the doctrine of 
divine sovereignty to the revolting extent of making God the 
efficient cause of all sinful, as well as holy, acts ("exercises") 
of the will ; yet with happy inconsistency he maintained the re- 
sponsibility of the sinner on the ground of his natural power to 
thwart the divine decrees, and earnestly enforced the claims of 
disinterested benevolence. Under his advice the severe creed 
of Andover Seminary was adopted.* 

* His Works were edited by Dr. Jacob Ide, and published by the Con- 
gregational Board (Boston, 1861, in 6 vols.). Dr. Park has written an 
admirable sympathetic Memoir of Nathaniel Emmons, with Sketches of his 
Friends and Pupils (Boston, 1861, 468 pp., with a portrait). With this 
should be compared an elaborate essay on The Theological System of Em- 
mons, by Henry B. Smith, written in 1862, and republished in his Faith and 
Philosophy (New York, 1877, pp. 215-263). Smith sums up the scheme of 
Emmons in the formula: " God, by direct efficiency, produces all events 
and exercises for his own glory. " It is reported that an eminent preacher 
said to him, " You and I agree that all sin and holiness consist in exer- 
cises ; " and that Emmons replied, " Yes, but we differ as to where the ex- 
ercises come from." Presbyterians generally opposed Emmons for oppo- 
site reasons : as a hyper-Calvinist on account of his supralapsarianism, and 
as an Arminian on account of his views on sin, ability, and the atonement. 
Emmons was a typical Puritan of the old style, known for sharp and quick 
repartees, and attracted attention by his three-cornered hat, small-clothes, 
and knee-breeches. In church polity he was an extreme Independent, and 
is credited with the saying: " Association leads to consociation, consocia- 
tion to presbytery, presbytery to prelacy, prelacy to popery, popery to the 
devil." 



384 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

The New Haven theologians, Timothy D wight (1752-1817) 
and Nathaniel W. Taylor (1786-1858), represent a semi- 
Arminian form of Calvinism which is called the " New School." 

President Dwight of Yale College, a grandson of Jonathan 
Edwards and a preacher and instructor of great influence, hu- 
manized the Edwardean system and relieved it of its extreme 
severity. He preached a system of theology and published 
it in a series of sermons.* He rejected the doctrines of the 
imputation of Adam's sin, of natural inability (total depravity), 
and of limited atonement, also the Hopkinsian view of the 
sinfulness of the prayers of impenitent men, and other Hop- 
kinsian extravagances. He is best known in the churches by 
his classical hymn, " I love thy kingdom, Lord." 

Dr. Taylor, his pupil, introduced further variations of the 
New England theology in the direction of semi-Pelagianism. 
He was, next to Jonathan Edwards, the most metaphysical of 
the New England divines, but apparently not familiar with the 
development of German philosophy from Kant to Hegel. He 
made theology subservient to the practical work of persuading 
men to turn to God by rousing their sense of personal responsi- 
bility. He taught, in opposition to the Old School, that election 
is founded in benevolence, guided by wisdom, and so dispenses 
grace as to insure the best results ; that sin is not " the neces- 
sary means of the greatest good," but may not be preventable 
in the best system of the universe j that " natural ability " in- 
volves a continued " power of contrary choice," but is checked 
by moral inability j that self-love is the spring of all moral 
action ; that the atonement is to be vindicated not as a vicari- 
ous scheme, but (with Grotius) as an essential part of the moral 
government of God.t 



* Theology Explained and Defended (1818, 5 vols. ; several editions, 
American and English). 

t His most elaborate work is The Moral Government of God (New York, 
1859, 2 vols.). See G-. P. Fisher, The System of Dr. N. W. Taylor in its Con- 
nection with Prior JSfeiv England Theology, in his Discussions in History and 
Theology (New York, 1888, pp. 285-354). He vindicates Taylor against the 
charge of Pelagianism raised by Hodge and other Old School divines. " It is 
a curious fact," he says (pp. 351 sq. ), "that men who are loud in their denun- 
ciation of Dr. Taylor's system profess themselves willing to tolerate the 
extreme Hopkinsians. They are shocked at the assertion of a power of 
contrary choice, but they can put up with the doctrine that God is the 
creator of sin ! They can freely tolerate propositions which are not only 
denounced by all the creeds of Christendom, but, if logically carried out, 
would banish all religion from the earth." 



NEW ENGLAND THEOLOGY. 385 

Against this New Haven School, Dr. Bennet Tyler (1783- 
1858) reasserted strict Calvinism,* and founded a theological 
seminary at East Windsor, Conn. (1834), which was afterwards 
removed to Hartford. It has lately received liberal endow- 
ments and taken a much broader position in the direction of 
progress. 

The last Old School divine in New England was Dr. Leonard 
Woods (1774-1854), professor in the theological seminary at 
Andover, which was founded in 1808 by the cooperation of the 
strict Calvinists (Hopkinsians) and the moderate Calvinists. It 
is the oldest theological school in America next to that of the 
Dutch Reformed Church in New Brunswick, which dates from 
the year 1784.f Dr. Woods took a leading part in the Uni- 
tarian controversy, and published his Theological Lectures and 
other essays at Andover (1849-50, 5 vols.). His son, Leonard 
Woods, Jr. (1807-78), translated Knapp's Christian Theology 
(1831-33, 2 vols.), which has been widely used as a text-book. 

Dr. Edwards A. Park (b. 1808, resigned 1881), a descendant 
of Edwards, succeeded and opposed Dr. Woods in the theolog- 
ical chair at Andover. He was a brilliant and magnetic lec- 
turer and preacher, and had the singular faculty of making 
abstruse, logical definitions and distinctions interesting by illus- 
trative anecdotes. His system essentially agrees with the mod- 
ern New Haven divinity. % 

Since about 1880 Andover theology, under the lead of Dr. 
Egbert C. Smyth (professor of Church History), has taken a 
new departure, which differs as widely from Dr. Park as Dr. 
Park differed from Dr. Woods. It has become an advocate of 
" progressive orthodoxy " beyond the strict sense of the "An- 
dover Creed." The best known tenet of this newer New School 
is the modern German hypothesis of future (not second) proba- 
tion for all who have not heard the gospel in this life. This 
hypothesis, though not professionally taught in the Seminary, 
created a great commotion in connection with the policy of the 
American Board of Foreign Missions, and led to a lawsuit for 

* In several controversial pamphlets, and in his Lectures on Theology, 
published after his death (Boston, 1859), with a memoir by Nahum Gale. 

t Dr. Livingston was chosen professor by the Dutch Reformed Church 
in 1784, and inaugurated at New York, May 19, 1785. 

+ See his Discourses on some Theological Doctrines as related to the Re- 
ligious Character (Andover, 1885). His lectures on Systematic Theology 
have not yet been published. 



386 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

alleged violation of the creed of the seminary. The court has 
decided in favor of a liberal construction (1892). 

The Congregational Creed of 1883. 

New England Puritanism has gradually drifted away from 
the Westminster Confession without falling out of the line of 
Eeformed theology in its legitimate development. At the 
fourth session of the National Council of the Congregational 
Churches of the United States, convened at St. Louis, Mo., 
November, 1880, it was resolved to prepare a summary of the 
doctrines held by them. Accordingly, a committee of twenty- 
five able divines matured a new " statement of doctrine " in 1883, 
without imposing it upon the churches. It consists of twelve 
articles, and presents all the essential truths of evangelical Prot- 
estantism, but omits the offensive points of the Calvinism of 
Dort and Westminster. The first article states the orthodox 
doctrine of the Trinity with a skillful avoidance of the vexed 
difference about the double procession of the Holy Ghost by' 
substituting "is sent" for " proceeds" (from the Father and 
Son). The second article treats of the difficult subject of divine 
sovereignty and human responsibility as follows : 

"We believe that the Providence of God, by which he exe- 
cutes his eternal purposes in the government of the world, is 
in and over all events ; yet so that the freedom and responsi- 
bility of man are not impaired, and sin is the act of the creature 
alone." * 

CHAPTER CCXXVIII. 

CHANNING AND BUSHNELL. 

An account of New England theology would not be complete 
without a reference to two most eminent divines, who were of 
genuine Puritan stock, but departed considerably from Puritan 
orthodoxy. 

Unitarianism is an important factor in the history of Puritan 
New England. It rose from the early Arminianism, which 
never died out, in spite of Edwards and his School, but increased 
in the later part of the eighteenth century. It is a radical re- 

* The creed is printed, with a historical introduction, in the 5th edition 
of Schaff's Creeds of Christendom, vol. iii., pp. 910 sqq. 



CHANGING AND BUSHNELL. 387 

action against dogmatic Calvinism, and substitutes an opti- 
mistic for a pessimistic view of human nature. It denies 
original sin, and believes in the native dignity and nobility of 
man. It lacks that sense of sin and guilt which terrified the 
conscience of Paul, Augustin, Luther, Calvin, and Edwards, and 
which made them feel all the more the power of forgiving and 
saving grace. It forms an American parallel to German Ration- 
alism in its milder types. 

The ablest and noblest representative of American Unita- 
rianism is William Ellery Channing (1780-1842), a man of 
high literary culture, moral purity, devout and fervent piety. 
He was not so much a scholar and theologian as a preacher, 
philanthropist and practical reformer.* 

Unitarianism took possession of the cultivated society of 
Boston and Cambridge, the classical headquarters of Puritan- 
ism, and was connected with a literary and aesthetic renaissance. 
It turned theology from a metaphysical and dogmatic into an 
ethic and philanthropic channel, and produced a rich literature 
in poetry (Bryant, Longfellow, Lowell) and in history (Prescott, 
Bancroft, Motley ).t 

Horace Bushnell of Hartford (1802-76), an original genius 
and great preacher, stands between Calvinism and Unitarian- 
ism, but nearer the former. He occupies an isolated position, 
yet has left a permanent impression on New England theology. 

He renewed the Unitarian controversy in a milder form by 
his advocacy of the Sabellian view of the Trinity (God in Christ, 
1849), and of the moral theory of the atonement (The Vicarious 
Sacrifice, Grounded in Principles of Universal Obligation, 1866). 
In his Nature and the Supernatural (1858), he showed the har- 
mony of the two " as together constituting the one system of 

* In Europe he is better known, perhaps, than most of American authors. 
A French Catholic writer calls him the American Fenelon. Coleridge 
said that he "had the love of wisdom and the wisdom of love." Dr. Dol- 
linger regarded Channing and Nevin (very different in their tendency) as 
the two greatest American divines. His Works were published in Boston, 
1848 (6 vols.), and in 1880; in London, 1865; German translation, Berlin, 
1850 ; French translation, 1857 and 1861. See his Memoir, by his nephew 
(London and Boston, 1848; 10th ed. 1874, 3 vols.); George P. Fisher: 
Channing as a Philosopher and TJieologian, in his Discussions in History and 
Theology, pp. 253-284; and Schaff, art. " Channing " in the Schaff-Herzog 
Encycl., vol. i., pp. 430 sqq. 

t See ch. ccxvi., p. 349. It is characteristic that a number of distin- 
guished Unitarian ministers, as Sparks, Everett, Bancroft, Emerson, Ripley, 
Palfrey, and Upham, left the pulpit to devote themselves to literature. 



388 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

God/' and inserted a chapter on "the Moral Character of Jesus 
forbidding" his possible classification with men/' which is one 
of the noblest tributes of genius to the superhuman perfection 
of our Saviour, and superior to Channing's admirable essay on 
the same subject.* 



CHAPTER CCXXIX. 

PRESBYTERIAN THEOLOGY.f 

The history of Presbyterian theology in America is syn- 
chronous with the history of New England theology and passed 
through a similar conflict between a conservative and a pro- 
gressive tendency, respectively called " Old Lights " and " New 
Lights/' or "Old School" and "New School." Owing to the 
closer ecclesiastical organization of Presbyterianism this conflict 
resulted more than once in a split, but also in a reunion. The 
Old and New School are two rival sisters which cannot live 
without each other. The one preserves the good in the past 
and moderates the rate of speed 5 the other pushes hopefully 
forward into new fields of discovery and research. A ship 
requires heavy ballast to keep it steady, and steam and wind 
to drive it ahead. 

Jonathan Dickinson (1688-1747) is the first notable theo- 
logian of the American Presbyterian Church. He was of Puri- 
tan stock, the grandson of one of the first settlers of Connecti- 
cut, and educated at Yale College. In 1706 he became pastor 
at Elizabethtown. In connection with his ministry he practiced 
medicine. He joined the Philadelphia Presbytery in 1717 and 
helped to frame the Adopting Act of 1729, which made the 
Westminster Confession of Faith the standard of Presbyterian 
orthodoxy, but with an important limitation to its " essential 
and necessary articles." He took a leading part in the con- 
troversy between the "Old Side," or "Old Lights," and the 
" New Side," or " New Lights," which led to a division into the 
Synod of Philadelphia and the Synod of New York in 1741, last- 
ing till 1758, when the schism was healed. He sided with the 

* Life and Letters of Horace Bushnell, edited by his daughter (New- 
York, 1880). 

t The chief dogmatic works of Presbyterian divines have been men- 
tioned in ch. ccxiii., p. 343. 



PRESBYTERIAN THEOLOGY. 389 

" New Lights." He was one of the founders and the first presi- 
dent of Nassau Hall, or the College of New Jersey, which was 
opened at Elizabethtown in 1747, and removed to Princeton in 
1757. 

Dickinson was a contemporary of Jonathan Edwards, his 
second successor in the presidency of the College of New Jersey, 
and, like him, took a leading part in the great revival conducted 
by Whitefield and Gilbert Tennent. He was less metaphysical 
but equally earnest and practical, and made Calvinistic theol- 
ogy a converting agency. 

His chief theological work is a defense of the five knotty 
points of Calvinism, in five discourses, on Election, Original Sin, 
Irresistible Grace, Justification by Faith, and Perseverance of 
Saints* He regarded the five points indorsed by the Synod 
of Dort against Arminianism asa" golden chain, which extends 
from everlasting to everlasting and connects a past and future 
eternity, which takes its rise in God's foreknowledge and eter- 
nal purpose of grace to the elect and reaches through their voca- 
tion and justification on earth into their eternal glorification in 
heaven." 

At a joint meeting of the Synods of New York and Phila- 
delphia, held in Philadelphia, May, 1788 — the year after the 
framing of the Federal Constitution of the United States — the ec- 
clesiastico-political articles of the Westminster Confession were 
changed and conformed to the separation of Church and State. 
This was a most important departure from original Calvinism, 
and the Synods of Dort and Westminster, which held to a union 
of ecclesiastical and civil government and the implied principle 
of religious persecution.! 

I. The Old School Theology. 

The founding of the theological seminary at Princeton by 
the General Assembly in 1812 (four years after the founding of 
the seminary at Andover) marks a new epoch in the history of 

* The Scripture Doctrine Concerning Some Important Points of Christian 
Faith, first published in Boston, 1741, and often reprinted since (also by 
the Presbyterian Board of Publication, Philadelphia, 1841, pp. 292). 

t See the changes in chapters xx. , xxiii. , and xxxi. , with original state- 
ments placed in parallel columns in Schaffs Creeds of Christendom, vol. i., 
pp. 806 sqq. The American Episcopal Church, at the general Convention 
in Trenton, 1801, made a similar alteration in the Thirty-nine Articles, 
and omitted the Athanasian Creed (Creeds, vol. i., p. 653). 



390 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Presbyterian Calvinism. This seminary was singularly favored 
for two generations by two illustrious divines who, with their 
sons and successors, determined its character for a long period, 
and by their writings, as well as their pure and noble lives, made 
a lasting impression upon the Presbyterian Churches, and, we 
may say, upon American Christianity at large. 

Dr. Archibald Alexander (1772-1851), a Virginian by birth, 
was the first professor of systematic theology and the father of 
what, since about 1832, has been called " Princeton Theology," 
which was developed into a system by his colleague and suc- 
cessor, Dr. Charles Hodge (1797-1878), and popularized by 
the latter's son and successor, Archibald Alexander Hodge 
(1823-86). 

The elder Hodge studied in Germany at the time when 
Rationalism was still prevailing in the universities, but was 
not affected by it. He notices modern German opinions mostly 
to oppose them* 

The Princeton Theology is a scholarly, logical, luminous and 
warm-hearted reproduction of the Calvinism of the seventeenth 
century as laid down in the Westminster standards of 1647, 
and revised in America, 1788.t On the questions of inspiration 

* Dr. Hodge, after his election to a professorship in Princeton (1826), 
spent two years in Halle to study oriental philology with Gesenius, and 
"became intimately acquainted with Tholuck, who was just then beginning 
to turn the tide in favor of the evangelical revival. Hodge often spoke 
with great affection of Tholuck, and told me that he found as pious and 
godly men in Halle and Berlin as anywhere in America. Tholuck said 
to me once : " Charles Hodge, Henry B. Smith and George L. Prentiss 
are my American pets." Dr. Hodge's place during his absence was filled 
''with eminent ability " by John W. Nevin, who never visited Germany, 
but was much more influenced by its theology and afterwards, at Mercers- 
burg, developed a very different theology. See The Life of Charles Hodge, 
p. 103, and Nevin's controversy with Hodge on the doctrine of the Lord's 
Supper, in the "Mercersburg Review" for 1850, pp. 421-549. 

t The Princeton professors are sworn to the Westminster standards by 
a rigid subscription formula, which is as follows : "In the presence of God 
and of the directors of this seminary, I do solemnly and ex ammo adopt, 
receive and subscribe the Confession of Faith and Catechisms of the Pres- 
byterian Church in the United States of America as the confession of my 
faith, or as a summary and just exhibition of that system of doctrine and 
religious belief which is contained in Holy Scripture, and therein revealed 
by God to man for his salvation ; and I do solemnly ex ammo profess to 
receive the Form- of Government of said Church as agreeable to the in- 
spired oracles. And I do solemnly promise and engage not to inculcate, 
teach or insinuate anything which shall appear to me to contradict or con- 
travene, either directly or impliedly, anything taught in the said Confes- 
sion of Faith or Catechisms, nor to oppose any of the fundamental princi- 
ples of Presbyterian Church government, while I shall continue a professor 



PRESBYTERIAN THEOLOGY. 391 

and imputation, which were not finally decided by the West- 
minster Assembly, Princeton follows the teaching of the elder 
Turretin of Geneva (1623-1687),* and of the Helvetic Consen- 
sus Formula (1675).t 

The Helvetic Formula is the latest and most orthodox of 
the Calvinistic confessions, but its authority was confined to 
Switzerland, and of short duration. It was prepared in 1675 
by Johann Heinrich Heidegger of Zurich (1633-98) in connec- 
tion with Francois Turretin of Geneva (1623-87) and Lucas 
Gernler of Basel (1625-75), and signed by the clergy of Zurich, 
Bern, Basel and Schaffhausen, but not printed till 1714, and 
soon afterwards subscription to it was abolished in Switzerland, 
chiefly through the influence of the younger Turretin. J 

This document deals with theological questions which were 
raised after the death of Calvin and Beza. It is directed against 
the liberal Reformed School of the Academy of Saumur in France, 
which flourished from 1598 till the revocation of the Edict of 
Nantes in 1685. It teaches verbal inspiration against Louis 
Cappel (Capellus, d. 1658), particular election, in opposition to 
the hypothetical universalism of Amyraut (Amyraldus, d. 1664), 
and immediate imputation of Adam's sin, against mediate 
imputation, taught by Joshua de la Place (Placseus, d. 1655). § 

in this seminary." This formula was adopted by the General Assembly 
in 1811, and is still in force (see Baird's Digest, p. 436 ; Moore's Digest, 
p. 377). Under such restriction it is difficult to teach Church History, and 
almost impossible to make any doctrinal progress "directly or impliedly." 

* Francis Turretin was the third descendant of the distinguished 
Turrettini (Turretin) family which emigrated from Lucca and settled at 
Geneva in 1593. His Institutio Theologian Elencliticce, etc. (1679, ed. nova, 
Genev., 1688, 3 vols. ; neatly republished in Edinburgh, and reprinted by 
Robert Carter in New York, 1847-48, in 4 vols. 8vo.), was made the theo- 
logical text-book at Princeton by Dr. Alexander. He was one of the 
ablest of the numerous dogmatists of the seventeenth century, and a 
veritable malleus hcereticorum, who approved the burning of Servetus as 
most just ("justissimas impietatis execrandw pcenas tidit," vol. L, ch. xvii.). 

t "Formula Consensus Ecclesiarum Helveticarum Reformatarum circa 
doctrinam de gratia universali et connexa alia nonnidla capita," in Niemeyer's 
Collectio Conf., pp. 729-739. An English translation in A. A. Hodge's 
Outlines of Theology, pp. 651-663. 

\ Jean Alphonse Turretin (1674-1733), a son of Francois, but a much 
more liberal divine and a hearty promoter of Christian union, exerted all 
his influence for the abolition of the subscription to the Consensus For- 
mula in Geneva in 1725. There the venerable document lay decently 
buried, till it rose to new life in the American town of Princeton. See E. 
de Bude, Vie de Frangois et J. Alphonse Turrettini (Lausanne, 1871 and 1880, 
2 vols.). 

§ Schweizer, Centraldogmen, vol. ii., pp. 439 sqq., 784 sqq. ; and Schaff, 
Creeds of Christendom, vol. i., p. 477 sqq. 



392 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

The Swiss Formula extends verbal inspiration even to the 
Hebrew vowel-points, or at least their force and significance 
(potestas), and meant to assert also the divine preservation of 
the Bible text so as to supersede the necessity of biblical criti- 
cism, which was feared as a dangerous science, undermining 
the authority of an infallible Bible against an infallible pope.* 

Dr. Hodge does not go quite so far ; he knows well enough 
that the Hebrew vowels cannot be traced beyond the sixth 
century after Christ; he allows more room for the human 
agency in the composition of Scripture • he even admits a few 
minor defects, as (to use his illustration) " here and there a speck 
of sandstone may be found in the marble of the Parthenon." 
But he asserts, nevertheless, the plenary inspiration of words as 
well as thoughts, and says that " inspiration is not confined to 
moral and religious truths, but extends to the statements of 
facts, whether scientific, historical or geographical." t 

The theory of a literal inspiration and inerrancy was not held 
by the Reformers, is not taught by any other symbolical book, 
has no foundation in the Bible itself, is disproved by the free 
quotations from the Old Testament (ad sensum rather than ad 
literam), and is exposed to unanswerable objections. It is in- 
consistent with known facts which are truths. It cannot be 

* " II. In specie auteni Hebraicus Veteris Testamenti Codex, quern ex tra- 
ditione Ecclesice Judaicce, cui olim Oracula Dei commissa sunt, accepimus 
hodieque retinemus, turn quoad consonas, turn quoad vocalia, sive puncta ipsa, 
sive punctorum saltern potestatem, et turn quoad res, turn quoad verba deoirvEv- 
gtoc, ut fidei et vitce nostrce, una cum Codice Novi Testamenti sit Canon uni- 
ons et illibatus, ad cuius normam, ceu Lydium lapidem, universce, quce extant, 
Versiones, sive orientales, sive occidentals exigendce, et sicubi deflectunt, 
revocandce sunt." — (Niemeyer's Collectio, p. 731.) In the translation of 
Dr. A. A. Hodge : ' ' But, in particular, the Hebrew Original of the Old 
Testament, which we have received and to this day do retain as handed 
down by the Jewish Church, unto whom formerly 'were committed the 
oracles of God ' (Rom. 3 : 2), is, not only in its consonants, but in its 
vowels — either the vowel points themselves, or at least the power of the 
points — not only in its matter, but in its words, inspired of God, thus 
forming, together with the Original of the New Testament, the sole and 
complete rule of our faith and life ; and to its standard, as to a Lydian 
stone, all extant versions, oriental and occidental, ought to be applied, 
and wherever they differ, be conformed." Compare Turretin, Locus Se- 
cundus, Questio 10 (vol. i., pp. 96 sq.). He vindicates verbal inspira- 
tion for the existing original text as a faithful copy of the autographs. 
" Textuum Originalium nomine, non intelligimus ipsa Autographa mann 
Mosis, Proplietarum et Apostolorum exarata, quce desiderari hodie constat, 
sed eorum Apographa, quce eo nomine veniunt, quia exprimunt nobis Ver- 
bum Mud Dei Mis ipsis verbis quibus Scriptores sacri id consignarunt sub 
immediata inspiratione Spiritus S." 

t Syst. Tlieology, vol. i., p. 163. 



PRESBYTERIAN THEOLOGY. 393 

claimed for any of the numerous translations of the Bible, which 
are confessedly imperfect and yet convey to the reader the word 
of God for all practical purposes ; nor for the Hebrew text, which 
in its present form is of late rabbinical origin and presents 
many variations ; nor for the Septuagint, which often differs 
from the Hebrew text, and yet is usually quoted by our Lord 
and the Apostles ; nor for the Greek Testament with its many 
thousands of discordant readings, which have come to light 
since the seventeenth century by the discovery and exami- 
nation of MSS., versions, and patristic quotations. It could 
therefore only apply to "the original autographs" (which no- 
body has seen since the days of the Apostles).* 

Since God has made no provision for infallible transcribers 
and inf allible translators of the Bible, we must infer that verbal 
inspiration was not necessary. Inspiration must not be con- 
founded with dictation ; the former is a free spiritual, the latter 
a mechanical, process. God acts upon men as free and respon- 
sible agents, and so inspired the organs of revelation that they 
became his faithful witnesses in preaching and acting as well as 
in writing, but always in accordance with their education; their 
mode of thought and speech, and without superseding the 
use of the ordinary means of information (as is very evident in 
the case even of the Gospels ; comp. Luke 1 : 1-4). The fact of 
inspiration is manifest, the mode of inspiration is as myste- 
rious as the influence of the mind upon the body. 

Our faith in the Bible, as containing the very word of the 
living God and as the infallible guide in all matters of faith 
and practice, rests on its intrinsic value, and is independent of 

* Drs. A. A. Hodge and B. B. Warfield, the successors of Charles Hodge 
in the theological chair at Princeton, confine inerrancy to these non-existing 
original autographs. See "Princeton Review" for 1881, p. 238. "The 
historical faith of the Church has always [?] been that all the affirmations 
of Scripture of all kinds, whether of spiritual doctrine or duty, or of phys- 
ical or historical fact, or of psychological or philosophical principle, are 
without any error, when the ipsissima verba of the original autographs 
are ascertained, and interpreted in a natural and intended sense." Comp. 
Dr. Warfield's article on inspiration in "The Presbyterian and Reformed 
Review " for April, 1893, pp. 177-221. 

The distinction between "inerrant autographs " and errant copies seems 
to have been first made by Richard Simon (1638-1712), the father of bibli- 
cal isagogic, to prove the necessity of textual criticism and to silence the 
attacks of Protestant and Roman Catholic champions for the inerrancy of 
the existing text of the Bible. He also intended to show "que les protes- 
tants n'avait aucun principe assure de leur religion, en rejetant la tradition 
de Vfiglise" (Preface to his L'histoire critique du F. T.). 



394 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

any human theory of inspiration. As Dr. Hodge well says, 
" theories are of men, truth is of God." 

In some important respects, the Princeton theology marks 
an advance and improvement upon the polemic orthodoxy of 
the seventeenth century. Dr. Hodge is free from narrow and 
uncharitable bigotry. He claims that his theology is " dis- 
tinctly Christological," and quotes with approbation the words 
which Neander wrote in his album in Greek: " Nothing in 
ourself, all things in the Lord, whom alone to serve is a glory 
and a joy ; " — adding, " These words our old professors would 
have inscribed in letters of gold over the portals of this semi- 
nary, there to remain in undiminished brightness as long as the 
name of Princeton lingers in the memory of man." * 

He dissented from the traditional prejudice against Roman- 
ism, and had the courage to oppose by convincing arguments the 
decision of the Old School General Assembly held at Cincinnati 
in 1845, which out-poped the pope by unchurching the oldest 
and largest Church of Christendom, and declaring, by a vote of 
169 to 8, Roman Catholic baptism invalid.f 

The most important change refers to the number of the saved. 
Hodge holds the liberal views first advocated by Zwingli, and 
adopted by Arminians, Quakers, Baptists and Methodists, that 
all infants dying in infancy are saved, and closes his dogmatic 
work with the sentence that the number of those who are ulti- 
mately lost " is very inconsiderable as compared with the whole 
number of the saved." J 

The Southern theologians, James H. Thornwell (1812-62), 
Robert J. Breckinridge (1800-71) and Robert L. Dabney 
(b. 1820), represent, independently, the same system of Calvin- 
ism, but dissent from the federal scheme and the doctrine of 
imputation, and are more opposed to popery. 

* See his Semi-centennial Address in The Life of Charles Hodge, by his 
son, A. A. Hodge (New York, 1880, p. 521). 

t See his article in " The Princeton Review " for April, 1846, and his 
Life, pp. 340 sq. A similar action was attempted in the New School As- 
sembly, 1853, but defeated by Dr. Henry B. Smith. In the united Gen- 
eral Assembly, held at Cincinnati in 1885, a resolution was offered to 
confirm the action of 1845, but was fortunately rejected. Among the 
proposed changes in the Westminster Confession are those in ch. xxv., 
p. 6, which declares the pope of Rome to be the Antichrist predicted by 
Paul (2 Thess. 2 : 3 r 4), and in ch. xxiv. 3, which by implication classes 
papists with " idolaters." 

I Syst. Theology, vol. i., p. 26; vol. iii., p. 879. A. A. Hodge was even 
more liberal than his father. Comp. Schaff, Creeds, vol. i., p. 795. 



PRESBYTERIAN THEOLOGY. 395 

Dr. William G. T. Shedd, professor at Andover, and after- 
wards at Union Seminary, New York (b. 1820, resigned 1890), 
elaborated, in classical English, a different type of Old School 
Calvinism, with great ability and logical severity. He ad- 
heres strictly to the Angnstinian anthropology, and the West- 
minster Confession. He is a Calvinist pure and simple, and 
makes no concessions to Arminianism or modern theology.* 
He advocates the infralapsarian scheme ; the decree of repro- 
bation, as the necessary corollary of the decree of election ; the 
distinction between the secret and the revealed will of God 
in his offering salvation to all men, while he really means to 
make it effectual only for the elect. He teaches (herein differ- 
ing from Augustin, but in harmony with the Westminster 
Standards) the perfect sanctification of believers at their death 
and their immediate passage into glory, and thus obliterates or 
at least minimizes the distinction between the middle state 
before, and the final state after, the resurrection.! 

So far there is no difference between Shedd and Hodge. 
They also agree in mitigating the older Protestant eschatology 
by " the larger hope " for the salvation of the vast majority of 
men, including all infants dying in infancy. This is a triumph 
of the Christian heart over the cold logic of the intellect. J 

But there is a material difference in the philosophy and 
anthropology of these two distinguished divines. Dr. Hodge 
is a nominalist and a creationist. Dr. Shedd is a realist and a 
traducianist. Dr. Shedd makes, with Augustin, a real distinc- 
tion between the generic human nature and the individual man, 
and assumes that the whole race pre-existed and fell in Adam, 
and actually participated in his sin and guilt ; while Dr. Hodge 
defends the federal view of Coccejus, that Adam by divine 
appointment acted as the representative head in behalf of his 
posterity, which did not yet exist except in the divine purpose. 
Dr. Shedd accounts for the propagation of sin by Tertullian's 

* See his Dogmatic Theology (1888, 2 vols.), and his Calvinism, Pure 
and Mixed: A Defence of the Westminster Standards (New York, 1893). 

t He denies the distinction "between Hades and Gehenna, in opposition 
to the unanimous opinion of the ancient Fathers, modern commentators 
and the Anglo-American Bible Eevisers. He always quotes King James's 
version, which renders both words by "hell." 

X Dr. Shedd emphasizes the countless " multitude " of the saved, and 
reduces hell to " a narrow pit" (Dogmatic Theology, vol. ii., p. 747, and 
Calvinism, Pure and Mixed, pp. 121 sqq.). Yet he devotes only 3 pages to 
Heaven (vol. ii., pp. 664-666) and 87 pages to Hell (pp. 667-754) ! 



396 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

theory of traducianism, or the transmission of body and soul 
by natural generation, instead of ascribing the origin of each 
human soul to a creative act of God. His view furnishes a 
more rational ground for personal responsibility and for what 
he calls "the sinfulness of original sin," but it involves all the 
insuperable difficulties of the Augustinian theory. 

II. The New School Theology. 

The New School is nearer the Congregational Calvinism than 
the Old School, and keeps progress with modern thought.* 
The chief differences referred originally to the extent of the 
atonement — whether general or limited — and the nature of 
imputation — whether mediate or immediate. With these were 
connected conflicting views on the authority of the General 
Assembly, the " Plan of Union n with the Congregationalists 
(1801), the slavery question and moral reforms. In more re- 
cent times, other and more important differences in bibliology 
and eschatology have come to the front. 

The earlier representatives of the New School before the 
separation were James Richards (1767-1843), Baxter Dickin- 
son (1794-1876), Albert Barnes (1798-1870), Lyman Beecher 
(1775-1863), and Thomas H. Skinner (1791-1871). Richards 
wrote a system of theology, and presided over the Auburn Con- 
vention of the exscinded synods which adopted, in August, 
1837, " the Auburn Declaration," setting forth, in sixteen arti- 
cles, the true doctrines of the New School.f Barnes was the 
most popular commentator of his day ; Beecher was one of the 
most powerful preachers, though surpassed afterwards by his 
son, Henry Ward Beecher ; Skinner was chiefly distinguished as 
a preacher and saintly character. Barnes and Beecher were 
tried for heresy, but were acquitted. Nevertheless the friction 
between the two parties increased, until in 1837 the Old School 
obtained the majority in the General Assembly, abrogated the 
" Plan of Union," and cut off four entire synods (Western Re- 
serve, Utica, Geneva and Genesee) without a trial. The split 

* A number of distinguished New School Presbyterian divines (as 
Lyman Beecher, Wm. Adams, H. B. Smith, E. D. Hitchcock, Gr. L. Pren- 
tiss) were of New England origin. 

t The Auburn Declaration was written by Dr. Baxter Dickinson (then 
professor in Lane Seminary, Cincinnati, afterwards in Auburn) as a pro- 
test against the sixteen articles condemned by the General Assembly of 
1837. It was declared sound and orthodox by the Old School Assembly of 
1869. It is printed in Schaff's Creeds of Christendom, vol. iii., pp. 777-780. 



PRESBYTERIAN THEOLOGY. 397 

was completed by the General Assembly of 1838, which refused 
to recognize the commissioners of the four exscinded synods. 

For more than thirty years the two Schools kept up their 
separate organizations at a respectful distance and in honor- 
able rivalry, until in 1869 they were reunited into one Church 
on the basis of the Westminster Standards, without a surren- 
der either of orthodoxy or of liberty, and pursued the common 
work of propagating Christianity at home and abroad with great 
energy and success.* 

The reunion was a general and spontaneous movement, and 
was strongly promoted by the faculty of the Union The- 
ological Seminary of New York, consistently with its name. 
This institution was founded in 1836, shortly before the sepa- 
ration, on liberal principles, and as a protest against extreme 
views on either side, and against " practical radicalism and ec- 
clesiastical domination." It afforded ample room for different 
tendencies of Presbyterian theology (having among its profess- 
ors Smith of the New School and Shedd of the Old School), on 
the basis of the fullest and freest investigation of the Script- 
ures and the history of the Church.f 

The first exegetical professor in this seminary was Edward 
Robinson (1794-1863), the pioneer of Palestine exploration and 
of biblical philology in America. 

Its first distinguished dogmatist was Dr. Henry B. Smith 
(1815-77), who passed from the historical to the dogmatic chair. 
He mediated between Old and New School and was the chief 
leader in the reunion. He was a keen metaphysician as well 
as a historically trained theologian, a favorite pupil of Tholuck, 
and in living sympathy with the best ideas of the modern evan- 
gelical theology of Germany. He marks the transition from 
Theocentric to Christocentric theology. His leading idea was 
" incarnation in order to redemption." Unfortunately, he did 

* See Presbyterian Reunion ,: A Memorial Volume, 1837-1871 (New York, 
1870). 

t See George L. Prentiss : The Union Tlieological Seminary in the City of 
New Yo?-Jc (New York, 1889, 294 pp.). An authentic history of the institu- 
tion during its first fifty years, with "biographical sketches of its founders 
and first professors. Dr. Prentiss wrote also an Appendix : The Agreement 
between Union Seminary and the General Assembly (New York, 1891). The 
Union Seminary was originally free from ecclesiastical control, but volun- 
tarily sacrificed a part of its independence at the reunion in 1870 by giving 
the General Assembly the veto power over appointments of new professors 
(but not over transfers of professors from one chair to another). As this 
agreement led to unpleasant collisions instead of promoting peace, it was 
terminated on legal and constitutional grounds by the Board of Directors 
in 1892. 



398 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

not live to elaborate his system for publication, but left be- 
hind him a strong influence over numerous pupils.* 

Among these was Lewis French Stearns, his biographer, 
who was called to Smith's chair in 1890, but preferred to re- 
main professor in the Congregational Seminary at Bangor, 
where he died in his forty-fifth year (1892). He carried out 
more consistently the Chris to centric principle in his Present 
Day Theology.] This is not a complete scientific work, but a 
fresh popular discussion of the leading doctrines of the Chris- 
tian faith by a devout and thoughtful American, who had 
studied with Hodge in Princeton, with Smith in New York, 
with Dorner in Berlin, and with Kahnis and Luthardt in Leip- 
zig, and mediated between Presbyterian and Congregational 
Calvinism. He presents the most recent movements of evan- 
gelical thought on inspiration, creation, the providence of 
God, the Christological problem (the theories of kenosis and 
of progressive incarnation), election and predestination, and 
the future life. He reveres Augustin and Calvin as the great- 
est divines, " whose names should never be mentioned without 
reverence, and who have been most reviled by those who have 
known them the least " (p. 223) ; but he finds two defects in 

* His System of Christian Theology was posthumously published from 
imperfect lectures by Karr (1884, 4th ed. 1890). Comp. the collection of 
his essays edited by Dr. George L. Prentiss, with an Introduction, under 
the title Faith and Philosophy (New York, 1877). The oration which he 
delivered on this subject before the "Porter Rhetorical Society" of the 
seminary at Andover in 1849, struck the keynote of his theology. Dorner 
called Smith "one of the first, if not the very finst American divine of 
his time, deeply rooted in the Christian faith, large-hearted, far-sighted, of 
philosophical spirit, and unusually gifted for systematic theology." Godet, 
his friend and fellow-student under Neander, said : "II dominait chaque svjet, 
et me dominait en en parlant." Conversing with me once, Godet remarked : 
"Dr. Smith speaks from the heights." See Henry Boynton Smith: His Life 
and Work, ed. by his wife (New York, 1881), and Henry Boynton Smith, by 
Lewis F. Stearns (Boston and New York, 1892). Smith anticipated the 
central thought of his theology even in his twenty-first year, before he 
went to Germany, when he wrote to his Episcopal friend, Dr. Goodwin, 
from Bowdoin College at Brunswick, Me., Nov. 21, 1836 : " My object is to 
make and harmonize a system which shall make Christ the central point 
of all important religious truth and doctrine. Such, I am convinced, is 
the biblical scheme. Such a system, too, would be a practical system ; 
it would, at any rate, require that all preaching should be made in refer- 
ence to Christ, of course in reference to redemption and sanctification, and 
Christ as the cause of both." 

t Published by Charles Scribner's Sons (New York, 1893, pp. 508). 
Comp. his lectures before the Union Theological Seminary on Evidences of 
Christian Experience (New York, 1890), and his paper read before the Inter- 
national Congregational Council in London, July 15, 1891, which made a 
very marked impression. 



PRESBYTERIAN THEOLOGY. 399 

their system — the limitation of the love of God, and the denial 
of freedom. Instead of vindicating Calvinism in antagonism 
to Arminianism, he aims at a reconciliation of the two, and 
subordinates both to Christology .* 

The deep problem of divine sovereignty and human freedom, 
of particular election and the universal love of God, is still 
unsolved, and may never be satisfactorily solved in this world 
of imperfect knowledge. But far better to acknowledge the 
defect, than to deny the one or the other of these equally im- 
portant truths. Practically, however, the problem is solved in 
our Christian experience. Augustinians and Calvinists preach 
and work as if all depended on man ; Semi-Pelagians and Ar- 
minians pray and worship as if everything depended on God. 
Both can unite with equal fervor in Wesley's hymn, "A charge 
to keep I have," and in Toplady's " Rock of Ages, cleft for me." 
Paul himself, who first opened this controversy among Chris- 
tian divines and is confidently quoted by both parties, calls 
upon Christians: "Work out your own salvation with fear 
and trembling " — that is, with the utmost diligence, as if you 
could not do enough ; and adds, as the strongest encourage- 
ment, the Calvinistic reason : " For it is God who worketh in 
you both to will [by prevenient grace] and to work, [by co- 
operative grace] for his good pleasure" [in fulfillment of his 
gracious purpose]. 

* "Calvinism," he says (p. 431), "has had one great and most praise worthy 
object, to exalt God. It has aimed to bring men to the realization of their 
utter dependence upon God for all things here and hereafter. Believers 
owe their faith not to themselves or anything in them, but to God alone, 
working through Christ and the Holy Spirit. The practical effect of this 
doctrine has been to make strong Christians. The men who had come to 
believe that they were nothing and God everything, and yet that God was 
working in them and through them, could do their work in the world, since 
God gave it to them to do, without fear of men or the devil. The Protest- 
ants of Geneva, the Huguenots of France, the Covenanters of Scotland, 
the Puritans of the English Civil War, and our own Pilgrim Fathers, got 
the iron in their blood from their Calvinism. 

" But there is another side to this doctrine. It reduces human freedom 
to a mere name, so far as spiritual things are concerned. Faith, instead 
of being the free personal surrender of man's will to God, is a divine act, 
wrought in the soul by overmastering power. Moreover, the doctrine 
throws a baleful light upon the divine righteousness. The non-elect never 
have the opportunity for salvation. It is to no purpose to say that they 
are justly condemned for their sins ; for the sin is not really theirs but 
Adam's, and they are condemned for that which they have absolutely no 
power to help. If the arrangement by which Adam stood probation for 
the race was of God's appointment, then the sin and guilt and misery 
which resulted to the race were also of his appointment. Undoubtedly 



400 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 



The Revision Movement and the Briggs Controversy. 

In 1890, the General Assembly held at Saratoga inaugu- 
rated a doctrinal revision of the Westminster Confession 
with a view to relieve it of its hard metaphysical and polem- 
ical features, and to adapt it to the present belief of the Pres- 
byterian Church. The same Assembly appointed also a com- 
mittee for the preparation of a brief, popular creed, which 
should express the consensus of the English-speaking Reformed 
Churches embraced in the Pan-Presbyterian Alliance. 

This movement marks a new epoch of development. It 
reopened the old conflict between the conservative and pro- 
gressive tendencies under a new form. It was followed and 
complicated since 1891 by the Briggs controversy about "the 
higher criticism," which involves the broader question of the 
academic liberty of teaching within the Presbyterian Church. 
This conflict has already led to two heresy trials in the presby- 
teries of New York and Cincinnati, with opposite results (1892). 
The Presbytery of New York (the largest in the country) ac- 
quitted Dr. Briggs on all the charges of heresy, but the General 
Assembly at Washington, June 1, 1893, by a large majority, 

many who profess to hold the genuine Calvinistic doctrine find some way 
to evade its ethical difficulties at the expense of their logic. But the doc- 
trine itself is open to insuperable objection. It stands the test neither of 
Scripture nor of reason. 

" The most important rival theory bears the name of the Dutch theolo- 
gian Arminius, but it was known long before his day, and is now held by 
multitudes who do not call themselves Arminians. The doctrine has been 
presented in two forms, which are at bottom the same. According to the 
first form, God's decree of predestination or election concerns the class of 
believers. God from eternity determined to save all who believe on the 
Lord Jesus Christ, and to condemn all who reject his grace. But when the 
Arminians are pressed to explain the relation in which individuals stand 
to the divine plan, they state the doctrine in a second form : God from 
eternity determined to save those individuals whom he foreknew would 
exercise faith and obedience ; or the divine decree, so far as it relates to 
the destiny of individuals, is conditioned upon the foreknowledge. 

" One cannot but feel respect for the moral earnestness of Arminianism. 
If human responsibility is to be maintained and the divine righteousness 
vindicated, the reality of human freedom must be admitted. Only upon 
this condition can the Gospel be offered freely to men, and the call be given 
to all who will to drink the water of life. Between a theory of election 
which shuts a large fraction of mankind helplessly and irremediably out 
from salvation, and the Arminianism which opens wide the gates of Christ's 
redemption to all who will enter, whether Christian or Jew or heathen, it 
seems as if there could be no question what our choice should be. 

"Still, when all is said, Arminianism also has its difficulties. Its weak- 



PRESBYTERIAN THEOLOGY. 401 

reversed the verdict and suspended him from the Presbyterian 
ministry. The minority entered a vigorous protest. What 
will be the consequences God only knows. 

The existence of two or more schools in one Church is a sign 
of strength rather than weakness : it shows vitality, encourages 
a noble rivalry, and insures progress. Controversy is preferable 
to stagnation, if it is conducted for the victory of truth. 

The Revision Committee after two years of labor reported a 
large number of emendations, omissions and additions, but as 
these proved unsatisfactory to both parties, they failed to receive 
the sanction of the necessary two-thirds majority of the two 
hundred and twenty presbyteries. This failure will stimulate 
the preparation of a new creed. The Westminster Assembly 
at first attempted only a revision of the Thirty-nine Articles of 
the Church of England, with a view to make them more explic- 
itly Calvinistic, but after having revised the first fifteen Articles, 
it was directed by Parliament (Oct. 12, 1643) to frame a new 
confession of faith " for the three kingdoms according to the 
Solemn League and Covenant.' 7 The present condition of the 
Church demands a short popular creed which is less Calvinistic, 
but more evangelical and catholic than the Westminster Stand- 
ards, and which, instead of perpetuating sectarian division, will 
serve as a bond of union with other branches of Christ's kingdom. 

ness lies in the direction of the strength of Calvinism. It lays the em- 
phasis too strongly upon the human factor in conversion and the Christian 
life. It does not bring into sufficient prominence the believer's dependence 
upon God. It is commonly connected with a doctrine of possible sinless 
perfection, which does harm by lowering the standard of the divine law to 
the level of human infirmity. Arminianism, likewise, fails to justify itself 
philosophically. To say that the divine decree of predestination is based 
upon the divine foreknowledge is to state the matter altogether super- 
ficially. How could God have any foreknowledge until he had formed his 
plan? If he foreknew that certain men would accept his grace if it was 
offered to them, and that certain others would reject it, and then decreed 
to create them and to put them in the circumstances in which he foresaw 
they would make these choices, then there must have been some real sense 
in which he foreordained these acts and their consequences. So strongly 
have some of the more thoughtful advocates of this theory felt the embar- 
rassment of their position that they have withdrawn to the position that 
God predestinates only the class of believers, and have denied his fore- 
knowledge with respect to the choices of individuals, thus maintaining 
their doctrine at the expense of the divine absoluteness. 

" The question therefore arises, Is it possible to formulate a consistent 
doctrine of predestination, which shall combine the elements of truth to 
be found in both the great theories and avoid the mistakes of both — a doc- 
trine which shall be Calvinistic in its assertion of the divine sovereignty 
and yet do justice to real truth to which Arminianism bears witness? I 
think it is possible." 



402 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

CHAPTER CCXXX. 

GERMAN THEOLOGY IN AMERICA. 

Germans, Englishmen, Scotchmen, and Anglo-Americans are 
branches of the same Teutonic stock, and acted and reacted upon 
each other in different epochs of their history. Germany gave 
to England in the fifth century her Anglo-Saxon population 
and language, upon which was grafted in the eleventh century 
the Norman French. England gave to Germany the Christian 
religion through St. Boniface, an Anglo-Saxon, who organized 
the feeble churches planted by himself and by Irish missionaries, 
and subjected them to the jurisdiction of the bishop of Rome. 
Germany repaid the debt by the Reformation and consequent 
emancipation from the tyranny of popery. The movement of 
Protestant skepticism and unbelief started with English Deism 
and found its scientific development in German Rationalism. 
The Pietistic movement of Spener, and the Moravian revival of 
Zinzendorf had a marked effect upon the greater Anglo- Ameri- 
can revival of the Wesleys and Whitefield, who did more for 
the evangelization of the masses and the promotion of practical 
Christianity than any evangelists since the days of the apostles. 

The revival of evangelical theology in Germany, which may 
be dated from the third centennial of the Reformation, could 
not be fruitless in England and America. It is becoming more 
and more an important factor in American theology, but can- 
not replace our systems of thought. German ideas cannot take 
root in English, Scotch or American soil unless they are freely 
reproduced in the English language and adapted to the practical 
wants of a free Church in a free State. 

The Christian religion has a stronger hold on the English- 
speaking race than on any nation of the continent of Europe, 
and as far as practical theology and practical Christianity are 
concerned, Germany may learn much from England and Amer- 
ica. State churches have the tendency to make the people 
slavishly dependent upon the civil government for support; 
while free churches develop individual liberality and the capacity 
for self-government. 

But in the development of theology as a science in all its 
branches, Germany unquestionably occupies the first rank in 



GERMAN THEOLOGY IN AMERICA. 403 

the nineteenth century. Her universities are the busy work- 
shops of progressive exegesis, Church history, biblical and 
speculative theology, and will retain the leadership for some 
time to come. A theological education can hardly be complete 
without a knowledge of these achievements. 

The recent developments of German theology, since the days 
of Schleiermacher and Neander, have been made known to us 
first through translations, more or less imperfect, of the most 
important works by Scotch, English, and American scholars. 
Not content with indirect acquaintance, American students, 
following the example of Edward Robinson, Charles Hodge, 
Henry B. Smith, George L. Prentiss, Edwards A. Park, and 
George P. Fisher, attend, in increasing numbers, German uni- 
versities, to drink at the fountain new ideas and fresh in- 
spiration for independent work. They find a hospitable recep- 
tion in the lecture-rooms and homes of German professors, and 
learn to admire their plain living and high thinking, while they 
return the benefit by giving them a higher idea of American 
institutions and churches.* 

The influence of Germany is both negative and positive ; it 
tends to undermine old foundations, and aids in building up 
new constructions. It has been felt so far mainly in biblical and 
historical theology, but these are the foundation of systematic 
theology. The proper way is to proceed from the Bible to dogma, 
and not from dogma to the Bible. 

On the other hand, English and American divines are begin- 
ning to influence German theology by their published works, 
which attract the favorable notice of the leading periodicals. 
" In reality," says Harnack, " there no longer exists any distinc- 
tion between German and English theological science. The 
exchange is now so brisk that scientific theologians of all 
evangelical lands form already one concilium." 

The future progress of evangelical theology is intrusted by 

* Tholuck, Neander, Delitzsch, Dorner, Weiss, Harnack, and others will 
long be gratefully remembered for their kind attentions to American stu- 
dents. And these will appreciate the generous tribute given to them 
by the theological faculty of the University of Berlin: "The number of 
your pupils who cross the ocean to continue their studies with us is grow- 
ing from year to year. We desire here to give expression to the special 
pleasure with which we welcome American fellow-students ; for they form 
among our hearers a special group, which in lively interest and devoted 
zeal is not surpassed by any other." (From the semi-centennial Epistola 
congratalatoria to Dr. Sehaff, Nov. 16, 1892.) 



404 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Providence chiefly to the combined efforts of German and 
Anglo-American scholars. 

Literature. 

Clark's "Foreign Theological Library," published at Edinburgh since 
1864 and republished in New York, embraces : (1) commentaries of Tholuck, 
Hengstenberg, Stier, Keil and Delitzsch, Olshausen, Meyer, Lange, Ebrard ; 
Cremer's Theological Dictionary of the Greek Testament ; Lange's Life of 
Jesus; Weiss's Life of Christ, his Theology of the Neiv Testament, and Intro- 
duction to the New Testament; Godet's commentaries on John, Luke, Ro- 
mans, and Corinthians, and his Introduction to the New Testament; Schiirer's 
History of the Jewish People at the Time of Christ; (2) the Church histories 
of Neander, Gieseler, Kurtz, Hagenbach (in part) ; (3) Ullmann's Reform- 
ers before the Reformation, and his Sinlessness of Jesus; Dorner's History of 
Christology, his History of German Theology, and his Dogmatic, and Ethic ; 
Miiller's Doctrine of Sin; Martensen's Dogmatic and Ethic; Luthardt's, 
and Ebrard's Apologetic, etc. These translations were prepared mostly by 
Scotch Presbyterians, some by English Episcopalians and Independents, 
and belong to the evangelical school. 

In 1873, a company of liberal scholars, including Principal John Tul- 
loch, Professor Jowett, Dean Stanley, Prof. Samuel Davidson, Dr. James 
Martineau, John Caird, Henry Sidgwick, Prof. T. K. Cheyne, and others, 
formed a "Theological Translation Fund " for the publication of a theolog- 
ical literature of an independent character which should present the ' i best 
results of recent theological investigations . . . conducted without refer- 
ence to doctrinal considerations, and with the sole purpose of arriving at 
truth." This company furnished and published through Williams & Nor- 
gate, London, translations of Keim's History of Jesus of Nazara ; Baur's Paid, 
the Apostle of Jesus Christ, and his Church History of the First Three Centu- 
ries ; Kuenen's Religion of Israel to the Fall of the Jewish State ; Bleek's Lec- 
tures on the Apocalypse ; Zeller's Acts of the Apostles ; Ewald's Prophets of the 
Old Testament, and his Psalms and Job ; Hausrath's History of the New Tes- 
tament Times; Schrader's Old Testament and the Cuneiform Inscriptions; 
Pfleiderer's Paidinism, and his Philosophy of Religion; Reville's Prolegomena 
of the History of Religions ; A Protestant Commentary on the New Testament, 
by Lipsius, Holtzmann and others. 

American scholars have done their share in translations, and have 
added the results of original work. Prof. Edward Eobinson, of the Union 
Theological Seminary in New York, laid the foundation for American 
biblical learning by his translation of Gesenius' Hebrew Lexicon (1836 ; 5th 
ed. 1854) and Wahl's Clavis Philologica Novi Testamenti (1825), which he 
superseded by his own superior Greek and English Lexicon of the New Testa- 
ment (1836 ; thoroughly revised, 1850). Prof. Joseph H. Thayer, of Ando- 
ver Theological Seminary (since 1884 professor in the theological depart- 
ment of Harvard University), followed in the same line with a translation 
of Winer's Grammar of the New Testament Greek (1869), A. Buttmann's 
Grammar of the New Testament Greek (1873), and Grimm's Clavis Novi Testa- 
menti (1886, with valuable additions and references to the Anglo-American 
Revision). Neander was translated by an American Congregationalist 



GERMAN THEOLOGY IN AMERICA. 405 

(Prof. Joseph Torrey). Gieseler was completed by an American Presbyte- 
rian (Prof. Henry B. Smith), and Hagenbach's Dogmengeschichte was enlarged 
by the same. Meyer's commentary on the New Testament, and Godet's 
commentaries were republished from the Edinburgh edition with consider- 
able improvements. Mitchell translated Harnack's Outlines of the History 
of Dogma (1893). Lange's voluminous Bible-Work was (by authorization) 
reproduced and enlarged by forty American divines of different denomina- 
tions, published in New York, and republished in Edinburgh, in 25 vols. 
The Schaft'-Herzog ' • Encyclopaedia " (3d revised ed. in 4 vols., 4to, 1891) 
is a condensed translation of the best articles of the second edition of 
Herzog (18 vols.), by arrangement with the German editors and publishers, 
with numerous bibliographical additions ; while more than one-third of the 
work, embracing the articles on English and American and other topics, 
and the whole Supplement on Living Divines are original. The translated 
articles were submitted in proof to the German authors for revision. 

In this connection we may remark that some of the best private 
libraries of Germany have been bought by liberal friends of American in- 
stitutions. The invaluable library of Leander van Ess, which originally 
belonged to a Benedictine monastery in the diocese of Paderborn, and 
numbers 13,000 volumes, including 430 incunabula and the controversial 
literature of the Reformation period, is now in possession of the Union 
Theological Seminary at New York (Presbyterian). Neander's library 
belongs to the Theological Seminary of Rochester, N. Y. (Baptist). The 
library of Leopold von Ranke is the property of the University of Syracuse, 
N. Y. (Methodist). The Beck collection of the Luther literature, embrac- 
ing over 1200 works, was bought by the Theological Seminary at Hartford 
(Congregationalist). The library of Paul de Lagarde, which is very rich 
in Orientalia, was recently acquired by the University of the City of New 
Y T ork (1893). 



FOURTH SECTION: SYMBOLIC, POLEMIC AND 

IRENIC. 



CHAPTER CCXXXI. 

SYMBOLS OF FAITH, OR CREEDS AND CONFESSIONS. 

Christendom is divided into a number of Churches and Con- 
fessions. All acknowledge the Holy Scriptures of the Old and 
New Testaments as divinely inspired and as an infallible rule 
of faith and practice, but they derive from them different sys- 
tems of doctrine, government, and worship. 

The various doctrinal systems are expressed in the symbolical 
books or confessions of faith. A symbol in the theological sense 
is a creed which holds the members of a church together and 
distinguishes them from other religious bodies. The earliest 
creeds were brief baptismal confessions. The later creeds are 
much fuller, and some embody a whole system of divinity (as the 
Lutheran Formula of Concord, and the Calvinistic Confession 
of Westminster). They profess to be a summary of the teach- 
ing of the Bible as understood by those who adhere to them. 
But they differ from the Bible in form. A string of Bible pas- 
sages, systematically arranged according to topics, would have 
no distinctive character, and could not be called a symbolical 
book. A creed is the human answer to God's word, and the 
Church's interpretation of his revelation. The same may be 
said of a hymn, which is a devotional creed, as the Apostles' 
and the Nicene creeds are doctrinal hymns. 

All creeds are more or less imperfect and fallible. The Bible 
alone is the rule of. faith (regula credendi), the norma normans, 
and claims divine and therefore absolute authority ; the creed 
is a rule of public teaching {regula docendi), the norma normata, 
and has only ecclesiastical and therefore relative authority, which 

406 



SYMBOLS OF FAITH, OR CREEDS AND CONFESSIONS. 407 

depends on the measure of its agreement with the Bible. Con- 
fessions may be improved (as the Apostles' Creed is a gradual 
growth from the baptismal formula), or may be superseded by 
better ones with the increasing knowledge of the truth. 

Notes. 

1. Confessions is the name used on the continent of Europe for the 
three leading Churches which differ in their creed, namely, the Roman and 
Greek Catholic, the Lutheran, and the Reformed. Other religious socie- 
ties are usually termed sects, and were, until recently, excluded from civil 
rights. The Roman Church identifies herself with the Church Catholic, 
and regards all others as mere sects. In England the distinction is made 
between the Church (i.e., the Episcopal Church of England) and the Dis- 
senting or Nonconformist bodies, and the members of the former call them- 
selves Churchmen. In the United States, where all churches and sects are 
on a basis of equality before the law, the inoffensive term Denomination 
has come into use. There are, however, many more denominations than 
confessions, inasmuch as the leading Protestant denominations agree in 
their doctrinal standards, and differ only on minor matters of church pol- 
ity and ceremonies. 

2. Symbol, from the Greek ci>/Li.j3olov (avpfiaXkeiv, to throw together, to 
compare) and the Latin symbolum, means a sign or emblem ; in theological 
language, a doctrinal sign, token, creed, confession of faith. It was first 
so applied in the third century to the "Apostles 7 Creed," which the Chris- 
tians professed at baptism to distinguish them from Jews, heathen and 
heretics. It was also used in the sense of a watchword, military parole 
(tessera militis Christiani), with which the baptized entered upon their 
spiritual warfare against the flesh, the world and the devil, under the ban- 
ner of Christ. The term "symbolical books" (libri symbolici) originated 
in the Lutheran Church, as also the term theologia symbolica. On the 
different meanings of symbolum, see Suicer, Thesaurus, sub ov/ufioXov ; 
Bingham, Antiq., bk. x., ch. 3; Schaff, Bibl. Symbol., vol. i., p. 3. 

3. The authority of creeds is absolute in the Roman Church, which 
co-ordinates the Bible and tradition, and claims infallibility. It is relative 
and limited in the Protestant churches, which subordinate tradition to the 
Bible, and deny infallibility and perfection to any particular or visible 
church. Symbololatry is a species of idolatry. Article 19 of the Thirty- 
nine Articles of the Church of England says : "As the Church of Jerusalem, 
Alexandria, and Antioch have erred, so also the Church of Rome hath erred, 
not only in their living and manner of ceremonies, but also in matters of 
faith." Papal infallibility was declared a dogma by the Vatican Council 
in 1870, contrary to the clear case of Pope Honorius I. , who officially in- 
dorsed the Monotheletic heresy, and at the expense of the infallibility 
of the sixth and seventh oecumenical councils, and Pope Leo II., who 
officially condemned him as a heretio (see Schaff's Church History, vol. iv., 
pp. 500 sqq., and the literature there quoted). 



408 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

CHAPTER CCXXXII. 

CLASSIFICATION OF CREEDS. 

The creeds may be divided into the following classes : 

I. The three (Ecumenical Creeds of the ancient Church, ac- 
knowledged, at least in substance, by all branches of orthodox 
Christendom : (1) The Apostles' Creed, so called, begun in the 
second century, and completed in the fifth ; (2) the Nicene Creed, 
begun at the first oecumenical council in Nicsea, 325, completed 
at the second in Constantinople, 381 (or at Chalcedon, 451) ; (3) 
the Athanasian Creed, which is not from Athanasius, but of 
much later Gallican origin, in the sixth or seventh century. To 
these should be added the Chalcedonian symbol on the person 
of Christ, adopted by the fourth oecumenical council (451). 

Strictly speaking, the Nicene Creed without the Filioque is the 
only one which is adopted by the Greek Church, and she pro- 
tests against the later and unauthorized insertion of the clause 
Filioque by the Latin Church. She ignores the Apostles' and 
the Athanasian Creeds. The Apostles' Creed is used by Protest- 
ants and Roman Catholics more than the Nicene, and the Atha- 
nasian much less than either. 

All these creeds, however, agree in the doctrine of the Trinity 
and Incarnation. They profess faith in one God the Father 
Almighty, maker of all things ; and in one Lord Jesus Christ, 
the Son of God and Son of man in one person, who assumed 
human nature, suffered, died, and rose again for our salvation ; 
and in the Holy Ghost, the regenerator and sanctifier 5 and in 
the holy Catholic Church, the forgiveness of sins, the resurrec- 
tion of the body, and the life everlasting. 

II. The distinctive Creeds of the Orthodox Oriental or 
Greek Church : (1) The Orthodox Confession (1643), drawn up 
by Peter Mogila and indorsed by the Eastern patriarchs and the 
Synod of Jerusalem ; (2) the Decrees of the Synod of Jerusalem 
or the Confession Dositheus (1672) ; (3) the Russian Catechisms 
of Philaret sanctioned by the Holy Synod of Russia (1829). 

III. The distinctive creeds of the Roman Catholic Church : 

(1) The Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent (1564) ; 

(2) the Confession of the Tridentine Faith, also called the Creed 



CLASSIFICATION OF CREEDS. 409 

of Pius IV. (1564); (3) the Roman Catechism (1566); (4) the 
Decree of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary (1854) • 
(5) the Decrees of the Vatican Council of 1870 (the dogma of 
papal absolutism and papal infallibility). 

IV. The Lutheran Confessions : the Augsburg Confession 
and the Apology of the Augsburg Confession, both by Melanch- 
thon (1530) ; Luther's Catechisms, the large and small (1529) ; 
the Smalcald Articles (1537) ; and the Formula of Concord 
(1577). 

V. The Reformed (mostly Calvinistic) Confessions : the 
Second Helvetic Confession (1566) ; the Heidelberg Catechism 
(1563) ; the Gallican Confession (1559) ; the Belgic Confession 
(1560) ; the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England 
(1562) ; the First and Second Scotch Confessions (1560 and 
1581) ; the Canons of the Synod of Dort (1619) ; the West- 
minster Confession, and Larger and Shorter Catechisms (1647). 
The term Reformed is wider than the term Calvinistic and em- 
braces several modifications. Calvinism is not the name of a 
Church, like Lutheranism, but of a theological school. 

VI. Creeds of Evangelical Churches organized since the 
Reformation, as the Arminians, Congregationalists, Quakers, 
Baptists, Methodists, Moravians, etc. They differ from older 
Protestant Confessions in some minor points of doctrine, 
which are embodied in separate standards, or held traditionally. 
The Congregationalists or Independents originally adopted the 
Westminster Confession and Catechisms with trifling variations 
(1658), but have recently prepared a briefer and more popular 
statement of doctrine (1883). The Arminians differ from the 
Calvinists in five articles, chiefly on predestination and the ex- 
tent of the atonement. The Moravians accept the consensus 
of the Lutheran and Reformed Confessions. The Twenty-five 
Articles of Wesley are an abridgment of the Thirty-nine Articles 
of the Church of England. But the Wesleyan Methodists hold 
in addition the five Arminian Articles. The Regular Baptists 
are Calvinists with the exception of the doctrine of infant 
baptism and immersion. The Free-Will or Arminian Baptists 
are a small minority. The Quakers depart farthest from the 
Augustinian anthropology, and from the catholic views on the 
ministry and the sacraments, but are otherwise evangelical. 

VII. Those denominations which radically dissent from the 
evangelical doctrines of the Reformation as well as from Ro- 



410 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

manism, either substitute a new revelation for the old, like the 
Swedenborgians, or are opposed to all creeds. Their creed is 
no-creed or unlimited liberty of private judgment. 

Collections of Creeds. 

Philip Sciiaff : Bibliotheca Symbolica Ecclesice Universalis. The Creeds 
of Christendom with a History and Critical Notes (New York, 1877 ; 4th. ed. 
revised, 1884; 5th ed. 1890, 3 vols.). The only collection which contains 
all creeds and confessions. The fifth edition is enlarged in vol. ii. by 
Encyclical letters of Leo XIII. of 1885 and 1888 on Church and State : 
in vol. iii., by the Congregational Creed of 1883. The first volume con- 
tains a history of the creeds ; the second, the Greek and Roman Catholic 
creeds in Greek, Latin and English ; the third, the Protestant creeds down 
to 1883, in the original, with translations. 

The Primitive Catholic symbols by H. A. Hahn : Bibliothek der Sym- 
bols und Glaubensregeln der apostolisch-lcatholischen Kirche (Breslau, 1842 ; 
2d ed. by G. L. Hahn, 1877). 

The Confessions of the Greek Church are collected by Kimmel and 
Weissenborn : Honumenta Fidel Ecclesice Orientalis (Jen. 1843-50, 2 vols.). 

The Roman Catholic Confessions by Denziger : Enchiridion symbolo- 
rum et definitionum, etc. (Wurzburg, 1856; 6th ed. by Ign. Stahl, 1888). 

The Lutheran Confessions, which as a collection are called Liber Con- 
cordice, Boole of Concord, have been edited in Latin by Rechberg, Hase, 
*Muller (Latin and German, 6th ed. 1886), and in English by Henry E. 
Jacobs (Philadelphia, 1882 and 1883, 2 vols.). 

The Confessions of the Reformed Church in Latin by Augusti (1828), 
Niemeyer (1840), and in German by Mess (1828-46), Bockel (1847), 
Heppe (1860), and Bodemann (1867). 

CHAPTER CCXXXIII. 

SYMBOLIC. 

Symbolic, from ov^okov (see notes in chapter cexxxi.) is a new name 
for an old thing, called Controversial or Polemic Theology, but is an en- 
largement and improvement on it. In German it might be called Confes- 
sionskunde. Robertson and Shedd use for it the term Symbolism ; but this 
has no analogy in theological nomenclature, and would, etymologically, 
designate the system of symbols rather than the science of symbols. 

The number and variety of creeds and confessions necessi- 
tates a special branch of theology called Symbolic or Compara- 
tive Dogmatic. It deals with the doctrinal differences of the 
Christian Churches as far as they are publicly expressed and 
acknowledged in their doctrinal standards. 

Symbolic lies on the boundary line between the History of 
Dogma and Dogmatic Theology. It agrees with both in the 



POLEMICAL SYMBOLIC. 411 

contents, but it differs from the former as the result differs 
from the process, and from the latter as comparative philology 
differs from philology. It represents the creeds not in their 
gradual historic growth, but as living and completed systems 
of faith. It covers not the whole field of Dogmatic, but only 
the controverted articles, and discusses them more fully. 

Symbolic in its fullest extent implies a historical, polemical 
and irenical element. Some Avriters, however, exclude the 
second and third elements, and make it purely historical* 

CHAPTER CCXXXIV. 

HISTORICAL SYMBOLIC. 

Historical Symbolic is an objective exposition of the various 
Christian creeds, either in chronological order, or according to 
their importance. It may cover the whole ground of dogmatic 
teaching, or omit the parts in which the Churches are agreed. In 
either case the method may be purely historical, or comparative.t 

The information must always be drawn from the symbolical 
books ; but standard writers may be used for explanation and 
illustration. 

CHAPTER CCXXXV. 

POLEMICAL SYMBOLIC. 

Tlieologia Polemica, from Tr62,efiog, war, Trote/uiuSc, warlike. Tlieologia 
Eienclitica, from eleyxog, proof, kleyx^j to convict, to refute (Tit. 1:9, 13 ; 
2 : 15). Synopsis Controversial- um (Calov). Streittlieologie (Mosheim). Po- 
lemik (Schleiermacher and others). 

Polemic, or controversial theology, in the wider sense, dis- 
cusses the conflict of orthodoxy with the various forms of heresy 
as well as the differences between the orthodox creeds. In the 
narrower sense, it is confined to denominational controversies 
and is identical with Symbolic. 

The polemical element consists in the argument for or against 
the doctrines in dispute. They must be subjected to the three- 

* So Winer, Kollner, Baier, Kattenbusch. 

t Winer follows the comparative method and exhibits the controverted 
doctrines in parallel columns representing as many churches and sects, for 
convenient use. 



412 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

fold test of Scripture, tradition or church teaching, and reason j 
in other words, to an exegetical, historical, and dogmatic or 
philosophical examination. 

The standpoint and the result vary according to the confes- 
sional conviction and aim of the writer. But justice and truth 
should be the supreme consideration. 

CHAPTER CCXXXVI. 

IRENIC. 

From dpfjVT), peace ; EiprjvtKog, pacific. Theologica irenica, pacifica, or heno- 
tica (from ivuacg, svurinog). Irenicon or Henoticon is a formula of union, 
a device for securing peace. Irenic is the science of the harmony of con- 
fessions or the reunion of Christendom. 

Controversy is or ought to be carried on for the triumph of 
truth. The end of war is peace. Paul, the most polemic of 
the apostles, always ready to fight for " sound doctrine," and 
" to convict the gainsay ers " (Tit. 1:9), exhorts the Christians to 
" keep the unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace " ; adding, 
a There is one body, and one Spirit, even as also ye were called 
in one hope of your calling j one Lord, one faith, one baptism, 
one God and Father of all, who is over all, and through all, and 
in all" (Eph. 4:3-6). 

Symbolic fulfills its highest mission in Irenic. We can hardly 
call Irenic a distinct and separate discipline, but an irenic spirit 
should pervade and direct Symbolic and Polemic. This is the 
spirit of Christian liberality and comprehension, in opposition 
to narrowness, bigotry, and exclusiveness. The irenic temper 
is free from malice and full of charity even to an enemy. It 
does not minimize or compromise the doctrinal differences, but 
it never loses sight of the points of contact and the underlying 
unity, and endeavors to promote a better understanding and 
ultimate reconciliation of the doctrinal antagonisms of the 
Church. This irenic spirit is of comparatively recent growth, 
but there have always been advocates of peace, even in the most 
polemic ages of the Church, as Melanchthon, Baxter, Spener. 

True catholicity and liberality are as far removed from indif- 
ferentism and latitudinarianism as from sectarian bigotry and 
exclusiveness. They are born of a larger Christian charity and a 
deeper insight into the vastness of the truth and the incapacity 



IRENIC. 413 

of any single mind or sect to comprehend it in all its various 
aspects. Those who are firmly rooted and grounded in the 
faith can best afford to be liberal toward those who honestly 
and earnestly differ. The higher the position, the broader the 
horizon of vision. Our theology should be as broad and com- 
prehensive as God's truth and God's love, and as narrow and 
strict as God's justice. Denominational Christianity should 
be subservient to catholic Christianity. Loyalty toward a 
particular church is perfectly compatible with a catholic spirit 
of respect and love for all other branches of the same kingdom 
of our common Lord and Saviour. The one eternal truth of 
God reflects itself in each human mind in a peculiar form. The 
Holy Spirit speaks in ten thousand tongues. 

Between truth and error, indeed, there can be no compromise, 
as little as between holiness and sin, God and Belial, Christ and 
Antichrist. As far as two parties teach contradictory doc- 
trines, either one or both must be wrong ; both cannot be right. 
But there are doctrinal differences which are simply opposite, 
not contradictory, and which on closer inspection appear to be 
only different aspects of one and the same truth. In such cases 
both parties may be right so far as they go in their positive 
statement, and wrong only so far as they exclude and deny the 
other side of the truth. 

Of such character are the historical discrepancies among the 
Evangelists, and even the doctrinal differences among the apos- 
tles, e.g., Paul and James in the article on justification by faith 
or works. There are undoubtedly various types of apostolic 
theology represented by James, Peter, Paul and John, and we 
behold in them the manifold wisdom of God, the depth and 
height and breadth of Christian truth, its variety, fullness, 
universality and adaptability to all classes of mind and spheres 
of labor. 

So we must to a large extent admit the historical necessity 
and usefulness of doctrinal as well as disciplinary and ritual 
distinctions in Christendom. We should cheerfully recognize 
all that is good, beautiful and useful in them. We should bless 
all whom God blesses and wish them success, no matter to what 
branch of his kingdom they belong. Protestants should thank 
God for the progress of Catholicism, and Catholics for the prog- 
ress of Protestantism, as a progress of Christianity. If only 
Christ is proclaimed and souls are converted, " I rejoice," says 



414 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Paul, " yea, and I will rejoice " (Phil. 1 : 18). Such a spirit must 
be educated and disciplined ; for human nature is selfish and 
contracted, and inclined to bigotry and exclusiveness rather 
than to catholicity and charity. 

It is the noblest mission of Symbolic to promote Christian 
union and harmony, not by ignoring or underrating the doc- 
trinal differences, but by tracing them to their roots, showing 
their connections, pointing out the errors and defects, and open- 
ing new avenues for broader and higher conceptions. We can, 
of course, not attain to perfect knowledge in this world. Now 
we know the truth in fragments ; in the other world we shall 
know it in its fullness and harmony. 

In this way Symbolic and Polemic become Irenic. Honest 
and earnest controversy is the road to an honorable and lasting 
peace between the contending Churches of Christendom. All 
the discords of human creeds will be solved at last in the con- 
cord of divine truth. 

Notes. 

I. The famous motto of Irenic : "In necessariis unitas, in dubiis libertas, 
in omnibus caritas." Not from St. Augustin in the fifth century, but from 
irenic divines of the polemic seventeenth century, Eupertus Meldenius in 
Germany (1627), and Richard Baxter of England (1679). For the origin 
and meaning of this sentence, see Schaff, Church History, vol. vi., pp. 
650-653. 

" Christianus sum : Christiani nihil a me alienum puto." A Christian 
application of the sentence of Terence : ' ' Sumo sum : humani nihil a me 
alienum puto." Christianity is the perfection of humanity. 

II. Christian union and Christian freedom are inseparable. Compulsory 
union can only end in greater separation. 

III. Christian union exists and has always existed as a spirit and prin- 
ciple, but is struggling for fuller manifestation, especially since the middle 
of the nineteenth century, in English-speaking Christendom, where the 
divisions are most numerous. Christian believers are one in Christ, and 
members of his mystical body. The nearer they approach to Christ in 
acts of worship and charity, the nearer they come to each other and forget 
their differences. 

IV. Various kinds of union : voluntary, federal, organic. 

1. Voluntary union and co-operation of individual Christians of different 
denominations without representative character or legislative power : 

The Evangelical Alliance, a voluntary society of evangelical Christians 
of different denominations and countries, founded in London, 1846, for the 
promotion of Christian union and the defense of religious liberty. Gen- 
eral Conferences held in London, 1851 ; Paris, 1855 ; Berlin, 1857 ; Geneva, 
1861 ; Amsterdam, 1867 ; New York, 1873 (the largest and most successful 
of all); Basel, 1879; Copenhagen, 1884; Florence, 1891; Chicago, 1893. 



IRENIC. 415 

The German Church Diet (Kirchentag), founded in 1848, confined to 
German Christians of the Lutheran, Reformed, Evangelical United, and 
Moravian Churches. 

Bible Societies ; Tract Societies ; Sunday-school Unions ; Young Men's 
Christian Associations ; Christian Endeavor Societies. 

2. Confederation of Churches, resembling the United States and the 
German Empire, but without a central government and without legislative 
j>ower : 

The Greek and Latin Churches before the great schism in the ninth 
century. 

The Pan-Reformed or Pan-Presbyterian Alliance, organized in London, 
July, 1875, embracing most of the Reformed Churches of both hemispheres 
and meeting from time to time in common council for co-operation, 
especially in mission fields and for the support of weak churches. The 
first council was held in Edinburgh, 1877 ; the second in Philadelphia, 
1880 ; the third in Belfast, 1884 ; the fourth in London, 1888 ; the fifth in 
Toronto, Canada, 1892 ; the sixth will be held in Glasgow, 1896. 

The Pan-Anglician Council, composed of bishops of the Protestant 
Episcopal Churches of Great Britain, the British colonies, and the United 
States, convened at Lambeth Palace, London, 1866, 1868, and 1888. 

The Pan-Methodist Conference, held first in London, 1881, and the 
second in Washington, 1892. 

The Old Catholic Union Conferences, held at Bonn, 1874 and 1875, 
under the lead of Dr. Dollinger, aimed at a confederation and intercom- 
munion of the Old Catholic, the orthodox Oriental, and the Anglican 
Churches, on the basis of the oecumenical consensus of the ancient Graeco- 
Latin Churches and the episcopal succession. They agreed on a consensus 
creed, but it has not received official recognition. (See Schaff, Creeds, 
vol. ii., pp. 545 sqq.) 

3. Organic or corporate union under one government : 

The Evangelical Union of the Lutheran and German Reformed Churches 
in Prussia and other German States, founded after the tercentennial of the 
German Reformation in 1817. (See Nitzsch : UrJcundenbuch der Evangel- 
ischen Union, Bonn, 1853.) 

The Reunion of the Old and New School Presbyterian Churches in the 
United* States under one General Assembly, completed at Pittsburg, 
November, 1869. (See Presbyterian Reunion, New York, 1870.) 

The Pan-Anglican Council of the Church of England (at the suggestion 
of the House of Bishops of the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United 
States, convened, at Chicago, 1886) issued from Lambeth Palace, 1888, 
a liberal basis for an organic union of English-speaking, evangelical 
Churches, consisting of four articles : the Holy Scriptures, the Apostles' 
Creed and the Nicene Creed, the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's 
Supper, and the "historic episcopate." The proposal has not as yet led to 
practical results. (See Randall T. Davidson : The Lambeth Conferences 
0/1867, 1878, and 1888; London, 1889, pp. 280 sq.) 

Organic union must embrace ultimately all Christendom, Greek, Roman, 
and Evangelical, under one head, Jesus Christ. It will not destroy, but 
preserve, the distinctive individualities of denominations as far as they 
are rooted in God's peculiar gifts, in different mental constitutions, and 



416 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

special missions. Unity is not uniformity, but implies the beauty of vari- 
ety, like all the works of God. The labors of history cannot be in vain. 
The wood, hay and stubble of man's invention will be burned, but the gold, 
silver and costly stones will be preserved, and each builder on the founda- 
tion of Christ will receive a reward. An act of humiliation in which all 
Churches will confess their sins against God and against each other, and 
give all glory to Christ, will precede the feast of reconciliation. That union 
may not be realized before the glorious advent of Christ at the end of the 
present order of things ; but it will surely come in a form much better than 
we can dream of ; and it is the duty and privilege of all Christians to pray 
and labor for it. 

CHAPTER CCXXXVII. 

METHOD AND ARRANGEMENT. 

The topical order adjusts the material of Symbolic to the 
dogmatic system, beginning with God and the creation and 
ending with the resurrection and life everlasting, and states 
under each topic the views of all the Churches. This is the 
method of Winer, who arranges the whole under twenty-one 
heads. 

The historical order presents the doctrinal controversies as 
they appear in successive ages. 

Both methods have their advantages. I would propose the 
following arrangement : 

I. The Creeds of Christendom, that is, a brief account of 
the symbolical books or doctrinal standards of the different 
Churches ( Confessionshmde) . 

II. The controversies between the Greek and Roman 
Churches. The procession of the Spirit; the supremacy of 
the pope. 

III. Romanism and Protestantism. The rule of faith; the 
primitive state ; the fall and its effects ; justification; the Church 
and the sacraments; the papacy; purgatory; the worship of 
Mary and the saints, etc. 

IV. Protestant controversies. 

1. Lutheranism and Reform. 

2. Calvinism and Arminianism (Methodism). 

3. The Baptist controversy. 

4. The Socmian and Unitarian controversy. 

5. The Quakers. 

6. Sweclenborgianism. 

7. Universalism. 



HISTORY OF SYMBOLIC. 417 

CHAPTER CCXXXVIII. 

HISTORY OF SYMBOLIC. 

Symbolic was first treated in an exclusively controversial and 
sectarian spirit down to the middle of the eighteenth century. 
Then followed a period of confessional indifferentism, which 
ignored or underrated doctrinal distinctions. In the nineteenth 
century Symbolic was revived and raised to the dignity of a 
theological science, partly in a purely historical interest, partly 
in the interest of confessionalism. 

I. The oldest dogmatic works of Irenseus, Hippolytus, Ter- 
tullian, and of the Nicene and post-Nicene Fathers are directed 
against heresies, and are purely polemical. 

Augustin (d. 430) made an approach to Symbolic in his trea- 
tise De Fide et Symbolo (393) ; but it is simply an exposition of 
the Catholic faith for popular instruction. 

II. The antagonism of the creeds of rival Churches began in 
the ninth century with the Greek schism, which is not healed to 
this day. The two main points of difference between the Greek 
and Latin Churches are the eternal procession of the Holy Spirit 
from the Father and the Son, and the supremacy of the pope. 
The chief champion of the Greek dogma was Photius, patriarch 
of Constantinople (d. 891) ; his great opponent was Pope 
Nicholas I. (d. 867). 

The controversy was carried on with great bitterness for 
centuries, and was occasionally interrupted by unsuccessful ef- 
forts for union. 

III. The Reformation of the sixteenth century introduced the 
more comprehensive controversy between Romanism and Prot- 
estantism, which lasts to this day. Cardinal Robert Bellar- 
min (1542-1621), a Jesuit professor of controversial theology 
in the Collegium Romanum, was by far the most learned op- 
ponent of Protestantism. His Disputationes de controversiis 
Christiance fidei adv. hiijus temporis hcereticos (Rome, 1587-90, 
3 vols., and often reprinted, e.g. Rome, 1832-40, 4 vols. 4to) 
furnished a rich arsenal for Roman Catholic polemics. Against 
him wrote Martin Chemnitz : Examen Concilii Tridentini (1565- 
73, 3 vols, fol., several edd. j abridged German translation by 
Bendixen, Leipzig, 1885). 



418 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

IV. The Reformation gave rise to a number of Protestant 
denominations with special creeds and confessions, which largely 
increased the material of Symbolic. The war between these 
rival Churches and sects — the Lutherans and Calvinists, the 
Calvinists and Arminians, the Baptists and Pedobaptists, etc. 
— was conducted almost with the same bigotry and bitterness 
as that between Romanists and Protestants. The rabies theo- 
logicorum, from which Melanchthon prayed to be delivered, 
reached its height in the seventeenth century before, during, 
and after the Thirty Years' War. A Lutheran wrote a book 
to prove that " the damned Calvinistic heretics " hold six hun- 
dred and sixty-six theses (the apocalyptic number) in common 
with the Turks ! When Calixtus of Helmstadt (1586-1656), a 
learned Lutheran of the Melanchthonian spirit, raised his voice 
in favor of moderation and peace, he was fiercely attacked from 
all sides as a Crypto-papist, Crypto-Calvinist, and dangerous 
syncretist. 

The reaction of Rationalism went to the opposite extreme of 
disregarding all creeds. 

Y. The modern works on Symbolic were written by Planck, 
Marheineke, Winer, Neander, Kollner, Oehler, Hase, Katten- 
busch and other scholars in a scientific and moderate spirit, 
and with better historical knowledge and appreciation of the 
different creeds. The Roman controversy was revived by 
Mohler and stimulated by the aggressive movements of ultra- 
montanism. The antagonism between Lutheranism and Cal- 
vinism has been superseded by the tendency toward union and 
co-operation among evangelical Churches. 

YI. In England, and especially in North America, where all 
denominations of Christendom meet in daily intercourse, the 
study of Symbolic and Irenic is more needed and more impor- 
tant than in any other country, and requires a considera- 
ble extension of the field and a modification of terminology. 
Though strangely neglected heretofore, it will no doubt be duly 
cultivated and incorporated in the regular course of instruction 
in our theological seminaries. English and American literature 
abounds in popular books and pamphlets on the Roman, the 
Arminian, the Baptist, the Unitarian, and minor doctrinal con- 
troversies, but has as yet not produced a single original scien- 
tific work on Symbolic. Two German works, by Mohler and 
Winer, have been translated. 



SYMBOLICAL LITERATURE. 419 

CHAPTER CCXXXIX. 

SYMBOLICAL LITERATURE. 

Phil. K. Marheineke (1780-1846) : Christl. Symbolik oder histor.-krit- 
ische und dogmatisch-comparative Darstellung des kathol., luther., reform. 
und socinianischen Lehrbegriffs (Heidelberg, 1810-13, 3 vols. ; 1st Part, 
Katholicismus). — Lnstitutiones symbolical doctrinarum Catholicorum, Protes- 
tantium, Socinianorum, ecclesice Grcecce minorumque societt. christ. summam 
et discrimina exhibentes (Bcrol. 1812; 3d ed. 1830). 

* G. B. Winer (Lutheran, 1789-1858) : Comparative Darstellung des 
Lehrbegriffs der veschied. christl. Kirchenparteien, nebst vollstand. Belegen 
aus den symbol. Schriften derselben (Leipzig, 1824, 4to ; 4th ed. "by P. Ewald, 
Leipzig, 1882 ; English translation by W. B. Pope : A Comparative Vieio 
of the Doctrines and Confessions of the various Communities of Christendom, 
Edinb., 1873). A very useful and impartial book. 

* J. A. Mohler (R. Cath., 1796-1838) : Symbolik oder Darstellung der dogm. 
Gegensdtze der Katholiken und Protestanten, nach ihren offentl. Bekenntniss- 
schriften (Mainz, 1832; 10th ed. 1889, with supplements by Kihn and 
Raich ; English translation by J. R. Robertson, under the misleading title 
Symbolism, London, 1843, 2 vols.). This masterly defense of Romanism 
created a great sensation in Germany, and called forth several able replies, 
especially from his colleague, F. C. Baur, Gegensatz des Protestantismus und 
Katholicismus (Tubingen, 1834; revised and enlarged,- 1836), from C. Im. 
Nitzsch, Protestantische Beantivortung der Symbolik Holder's (Hamburg, 
1835), and Marheineke (Berlin, 1833). Mohler replied to Baur (1834), and 
Baur replied to Mohler (1834) with equal learning and ability. It was 
a battle of giants. Mohler was a devout and orthodox Catholic, but not 
an ultramontanist and inf allibilist ; Baur, a liberal Protestant, and founder 
of the Tubingen school of critics. 

* Ed. Kollner (Lutheran) : Symbolik aller christl. Confessionen (Ham- 
burg, 1837-44, 2 vols.). The Roman and the Lutheran systems. Purely 
historical, and full of accurate information, but unfinished. 

H. C. F. Guericke : Allgemeine christl. Symbolik, vom luth.-kirchl. Stand- 
punkte (Leipzig, 1839; 3d ed. 1860 sq.). High-church Lutheran. 

B. J. Hilgers (Roman Catholic) : Symbolische Tlieologie (Bonn, 1841). 

H. W. I. Thiersch (Irvingite) : Vorlesungen iiber Katholicismus und Pro- 
testantismus (Erlangen, 1845, 2 Parts; 2d ed. 1848). Irenical. 

A. H. Baier : Symbolik der christl. Confessionen und Religionspartheien. 
First vol., Symbolik der rom.-kath. Kirche (Greifswald, 1853 sq., 2 Parts). 

F. R. Matthes : Comparative Symbolik aller christl. Confessionen vom 
Standpunkt der evang.-luth. Confession (Leipzig, 1854). 

Rud. Hofmann : Symbolik oder systemat. Darstellung des symbol. Lehr- 
begriffs der verschied. christl. Kirchen und namhaften Secten (Leipzig, 1857). 

* A. Neander : Katholicismus und Protestantismus, herausgeg. von H. 
Messner (Berlin, 1863). Posthumous. 

F. W. Bodemann : Vergleichende Darstellung der Unterscheidungslehren 
der vier christl. Hauptconfessionen (Gottingen, 1842 ; 2d ed. 1869). 



120 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Karl Graul (d. 1864) : Die Unterscheidungslehren der verschiedenen 
christl. Bekenntnisse im Lichte des gottlichen Wortes (Leipzig, 1845 ; 9th ed. 
by Theod. Harnack, 1872). 

* G. F. Oehler (Evang.) : Lehrbuch der Symbolik, Jierausg. von J. Delitzsch 
(Tubingen, 1876 ; 2d ed. by Theod. Hermann, Stuttgart, 1891). 

G. Plitt : Grundriss der Symbolik (Erlangen, 1875 ; 2d ed. by Wiegand, 
1888). 

K. H. Gez. von Scheele (Lutheran Bishop of Gotland) : Teologisk Sym- 
bolik (Upsala, 1877, 2 vols. ; German translation, with introduction, by O. 
Zockler, Leipzig, 1881, 3 Parts). Scheele wrote also the Symbolik for 
Zockler's Handbucli der tJieol. Wissenschaften (1883). He visited America 
in 1893 as delegate from Sweden to celebrate the third centenary of the 
Swedish Eeformation in Minneapolis. 

F. A. Philippi (Lutheran) : Symbolik. Akad. Vorlesungen, herausg. von 
F. Philipjpi (Giitersloh, 1883). Posthumous. 

* K. Hase : Handbucli der protestantischen Polemik gegen die romisch-kath- 
olisclie Kirclie (Leipzig, 1862 ; 5th ed. 1890). 

P. Tschackert : Evang. Polemik gegen die r'om. Kirclie (Gotha, 1885). 
Herm. Schmidt : Handbucli der Symbolik (Berlin, 1890). 

* Ferd. Kattenbusch : Lelirbucli der vergleiclienden Confessionskunde 
(Freiburg i.B., 1892 sq. ; vol. i., the Greek Church; vols. ii. and iii. will be 
devoted to the Roman Catholic and Protestant Churches). He extends 
the limits of Symbolic and includes worship, discipline and statistic. 

M. Schneckenburger (Professor in Bern ; d. 1848) : Vergleicliende Dar- 
stellung des hither, und reformirten Lehrbegriffs (ed. by Giider, Stuttgart, 
1855). This is confined to the differences between the Lutheran and Re- 
formed Churches, but is remarkably acute and discriminating. The lect- 
ures of the same author on the doctrinal systems of the smaller Protestant 
Church parties, edited by Hundeshagen (Frankfurt, 1863) are less important. 

I. E. MecoTiairag : 2vjuftoliK7j rfjq bpdodo^ov avaroMK^g kuKkfjaiag. Td ovjAfioTii- 
na /3i(3?iia, rd/uog A'. ('Ey 'Adyvaig, 1883, 494 pp.). 

IRENICAL LITERATURE. 

Jul. Muller : Die Evangelisclie Union ; ilir Wesen und ihr gcttliclies Eecht 
(Berlin, 1854). 

H. G. Hasse : Grundlinien christl. Irenik (Leipzig, 1882). 

J. Dollinger (d. 1891) : Kirclie und Kirchen (Miinchen, 1861). — Die Wie- 
dervereinigung der cliristlichen Kirchen {The Reunion of the Christian 
Churches). — Seven lectures delivered in Munich, 1872, after his excommu- 
nication from Rome, published in German, 1888, and previously translated 
from MS. into English by Oxenham (1872), and into French by Mrs. Loyson. 

P. Schapp : Tlie Discord and Concord of Christendom, or Denominational 
Variety and Christian Unity. An address delivered before the eighth Gen- 
eral Conference of the Evangelical Alliance at Copenhagen, 1884, reprinted 
in his Christ and Christianity, pp. 293 sqq. — The Reunion of Christendom. An 
address prepared for the Parliament of Religions in Chicago, September, 
1893. 

W. R. Huntington (Episcopalian) : The Peace of the Church (New 
York, 1891). 



FIFTH SECTION: ETHIC AND STATISTIC. 



CHAPTER CCXL. 

CHRISTIAN ETHIC. 



Ethic, rjdiKT) (sc, texv7], eirurrftfiq, or <puoco<pia), and Ethics, ra ijduid, are 
from edog or rjdoq, custom, habit, usage, disposition, character. Aristotle, the 
founder of moral science (in his Tjdina ^LKOfidxeta), gives this derivation, for 
the reason that virtue or moral habit is formed by repeated acts. Habit 
becomes a second nature. But he subordinates Ethic to Politic, and finds 
the realization of the moral ideal in the state. 

Morals is from mos, mores. 

Theologia Moralis. — Ethica Christiana. — Moral Tlieology, or Moraltheo- 
logie (Kihn and other Roman Catholic moralists). — Christliche Moral (Mar- 
heineke and Daub). — Christliche Sittenlehre (De Wette, Schmid, and Dor- 
ner). — TJieologische Ethik (Eothe). — Christliche Ethik (Neander, Harless, and 
Martensen). — Christian Ethics (Newman Smyth). 

Christian Ethic or Moral Theology is the science of Christian 
life. It is related to Dogmatic as works (sp^a, afdTUT], agenda) 
are related to faith (tzigziq, credenda), or as practice is to theory, 
or as morality is to religion. 

It is nsnally divided into a general and a special part. The 
first discnsses the fundamental principles on which morality 
rests : the moral character of God ; the moral government of the 
world ; the natural and revealed law of God ; the moral constitu- 
tion of man ; the conscience ; the freedom of the will ; sin and 
evil ; ability and inability ; regeneration ; and Christian life. The 
special part is subdivided into three sections : the doctrine of 
the highest good — the kingdom of God ; the doctrine of duty — 
to God, to our neighbor, and to ourselves ; the doctrine of virtue, 
which culminates in Christlike holiness or complete conformity 
to the will of God. 

Several of these topics are treated also in Dogmatic, but 
under different aspects. Christ is viewed in Dogmatic as the 
God-man and Redeemer from sin ; in Ethic, as model and ex- 

421 



422 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

emplar to follow. The kingdom of God appears in the former 
as an established institution, in the latter as an ideal to be ac- 
tualized. Sanctincation is, dogmatically, the fruit of the grace 
of God, who " works in us both to will and to work" ; ethically, 
it is the duty of man, who must " work out his own salvation 
with fear and trembling" (Phil. 2 : 13). 

Definitions of Ethic. — Schleiermacher : The representation of the com- 
munion of the redeemed man with God through Christ, or of that mode of 
life which arises from the dominion of the Christian self-consciousness. 
Neander : Christian Ethic is the science which deduces from Christianity 
the laws of human action. C. F. Schmid : The part of systematic theology 
which has for its object the Christian life. Wuttke : The science of Chris- 
tian morals. Harless : The theory of the normal Christian life. Marten- 
sen : The science of moral life determined by Christianity. Rothe : The 
science of the moral (die theologische Wissenscliaft von dem Moralischen). 
He regards it as a branch of speculative theology. Kihn (E. Cath.) : The 
scientific representation of those revealed truths which are the rules of 
our will and action. Sidgwick : The study of what ought to be. Mar- 
tineau : The doctrine of human character. Newman Smyth : The science 
of living according to Christianity. 



CHAPTER CCXLI. 

ETHIC AND DOGMATIC. 

Ethic has its roots in Dogmatic. Piety is the mother of 
virtue 5 love to God begets love to man. The first table of the 
Decalogue treats of duties to God ; the second of duties to our 
neighbor ; and the tenth commandment, in forbidding evil de- 
sire, points back to the secret springs of the heart, out of which 
are the issues of life. James says, " Faith without works is 
dead 5 v Paul says, " Works without faith are dead ; " both 
demand a living faith in living works. "Faith working 
through love" (Gal. 5:6) is the irenicon between the apostle 
of faith and the apostle of works. In catechetical instruction, 
Dogmatic is usually taught on the basis of the Apostles 7 Creed ; 
Ethic, on the basis of the Decalogue. 

Before the seventeenth century, Ethic was treated as an in- 
tegral part of Dogmatic, either under a separate section on law 
and an exposition of the Decalogue,* or in connection with re- 

* So Thomas Aquinas and the scholastics who overrated Dogmatic 
and underrated Ethic. Among Protestant divines Charles Hodge (Syst. 
Theol., vol. iii., chap, xix., pp. 259 sqq.) follows this inadequate method. 



PHILOSOPHICAL AND CHRISTIAN ETHIC. 423 

generation and the new life in Christ.* But the dignity and 
importance of morality require a separate treatment, which is 
now almost generally adopted. It was first introduced in the 
Reformed Church by Lambert Daneau (Danseus, 1530-95), a 
learned professor at Geneva and afterwards at Leyden, and a 
voluminous writer. t It was followed by Moses Amyraut of the 
school of Saumur, J and, in the Lutheran Church, by G. Calixtus 
(1586-1656). § 

CHAPTER CCXLII. 

PHILOSOPHICAL AND CHRISTIAN ETHIC. 

Ethic may be treated philosophically or theologically. Phil- 
osophical Ethic, or Moral Philosophy, is based upon the con- 
science or the inborn moral sense ; Theological or Christian 
Ethic, upon the revealed will of God and the example of Christ. 
The former follows the unwritten law of nature and the light of 
reason ; the latter, the law of Moses and the gospel of Christ. 
The one sees the highest good in the state, the other in the 
kingdom of God. 

The relation of the two is the same as the general relation of 
philosophy and theology, reason and faith, natural virtue and 
supernatural grace. It is a relation of friendly independence. 
They often come into collision, but this is due to the imperfec- 
tion of human knowledge. Each has its own mission. Starting 
from different premises and pursuing different methods, they 
yet mutually illustrate and strengthen each other, and arrive at 
the same end. The God of nature and of grace, of reason and 
of revelation, is one and the same. " The moral law within us," 
which filled the philosopher Kant with ever-growing reverence 
and awe, even more than " the starry heavens above us," points 
prophetically to the gospel, and finds its own subjective ideal 
(moral perfection, that is, conformity to the will of God) fully 
realized in the moral perfection of Christ. And the ideal state 

* So Calvin, Inst, bk. ii., ch. 8. (legis moralis explicatio); bk. iii., ehs. 
6-8 (de vita hominls Christiani, etc.). 

t In bis Etliices Christiana? libri tres (Geneva, 1577, and often). He 
tried to reconcile the Calvinistic doctrine of absolute predestination with 
severe morality. See a list of his works in La France Protestante, vol. v., 
pp. 62-91 (2d ed.). 

t In his Morale cliretienne, 6 vols. (1652-60). 

§ In his Epitome Tlieologiw Moralis (Helmstadt, 1634, 1662). 



424 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

of the philosopher coincides with the ideal Church of the theo- 
logian, that is, in the kingdom of God. 



CHAPTER CCXLIIL 

PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN MORALITY. 

Ed. Zeller (Hegelian, afterwards eclectic) : Grundriss der Geschichte 
der griechischen Philosophic (3d ed. 1889 ; trsl. by S. F. Alleyne and 
E. Abbot, Outlines of Greek Phil., London, 1886). His larger work: Die 
Philosophic der Griechen (4th ed. 1876-88, 5 vols.). — Wuttke : Handbuch 
der christlichen Sittenlehre, vol. i., pp. 18-94 (Leipzig, 3d ed. 1874). — 
Theobald Ziegler : Die Etliik der Griechen mid Bonier (Bonn, 1881). — 
Luthardt : Die antike EtMk (Leipzig, 1887). — Henry Sidgwick: History 
of Ethics (3d ed. London, 1892). — Comp. Schaff's Church History, vol. ii., 
pp. 311-421 (5th ed. 1889). 

Moral science, like all sciences and arts, was born in Greece, 
as Christianity was born in Palestine. Plato, in his Dia- 
logues, represents Socrates as an ideal sage and moral hero in 
contrast with the sophists of his time. He almost prophesied 
the suffering Christ when he described the righteons man as one 
who withont doing any injustice, yet snffers the greatest injus- 
tice, and proves his own justice by perseverance against all 
calumny unto death ; adding that, if such a righteous man should 
ever appear on earth, " he would be scourged, tortured, bound, 
deprived of his sight, and, after having suffered all possible in- 
jury, be nailed to a post." Aristotle, who was less poetical and 
idealistic, but more sober and realistic, than Plato, came very 
near the Christian standpoint when he said : " It is the divine 
principle in us (to sv yj[uv @siov) which in some way sets every- 
thing in motion. Reason has its origin in something better than 
itself. What is there, then, which you may call better than 
rational cognition except G-od (Osoc;) ? " His definition of virtue 
as a happy medium between extremes or avoidance of contrasted 
errors,* as also his fourfold division of virtue, f have been ac- 
cepted by the Fathers, but supplemented by the Christian graces 
of faith, hope and charity. 

No wonder that the two greatest thinkers of the ancient 
world have exercised such a commanding influence on Christian 

* Mea&njg t] apery, v7rep8o?i?j nania. Mydev dyav. Ne quid nimis. 
t Ho<f)ia, avdpia, aa^poavvr], dinaioovvT/. 



PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN MORALITY. 425 

theology, and were regarded as the intellectual forerunners of 
Christ. 

Nevertheless, there is a fundamental difference between 
heathen and Christian Ethic. Pagan morality is based upon 
selfishness and pride j Christian morality, upon love and humil- 
ity. Love, the gift of gifts, the fulfilling of the law, the bond 
of perf ectness, is not one of the four cardinal virtues of Greek 
philosophy — wisdom, manliness (or fortitude), temperance (or 
self-restraint), and justice. The last comes nearest to it, as the 
virtue which harmonizes the other three, gives to every one his 
due, even to an enemy, and includes piety to the gods (6oi6ty]<;), 
gratitude to benefactors, and mercy to the helpless. But how 
far is this from the incomparable description of love by Paul 
(1 Cor. 13) ! Humility, the crown of saintly character, denotes 
in classical Greek a servile, mean, abject spirit. Chastity, 
which lies at the base of personal purity and of family life, was 
unknown among the heathen, and the commendation of sensual 
love in its unnatural forms is a dark spot in Greek poetry and 
philosophy. Greek philosophy sees the greatest evil in guilt j 
Christianity, in sin. The former has no conception of sin, and 
therefore no conception of grace, which is the basis of higher 
morality. 

Stoicism is the best type of Eoman virtue, as Platonism is 
the highest form of Greek philosophy. Seneca, in his moral 
maxims, almost echoes Paul, though, in practice, he contradicted 
them, anticipating Francis Bacon, " the wisest, brightest, mean- 
est of mankind." Epictetus, the slave, and Marcus Aurelius, 
the philosopher on the throne, representing the extremes of 
society, are the saints of classical paganism, and resemble 
Christian saints as the shadow resembles the substance. They 
shine like lone stars in the midnight darkness of prevailing 
corruption. We must admire their purity and superiority over 
the animal passions, their self-control, their disregard of pain, 
and their passive resignation to inevitable fate. But the stoic 
virtue of apathy which consigns wife and children to the grave 
without a tear, and hopelessly resorts to suicide when the house 
begins to smoke, is unnatural, and contrasts most unfavorably 
with the cheerful and hopeful submission of the Christian to 
the will of his heavenly Father, who doeth all things well. We 
are not to kill, but only to moderate and to purify the feelings 
of joy and sorrow, of pleasure and pain. We may rejoice with 



426 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

those who rejoice, and weep with those who weep. Our Saviour 
was in sympathy with all the sufferings of humanity : he shed 
tears of friendship at the grave of Lazarus, tears of sorrow over 
unbelieving Jerusalem, tears of agony in Gethsemane, and under 
the weight of a world of sin and guilt he cried on the cross, " My 
God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me ? " Yet in all this he 
submitted his own will to the will of his heavenly Father, and 
having drunk the cup of suffering to its dregs, he commended 
his soul to him, with the shout of triumph, "It is finished ! " 
He was most human, and yet most divine. 

Christ presents the first and highest example of the purest 
teaching and the holiest life in perfect harmony. His advent 
was a new moral creation. The extent and depth of his influ- 
ence upon all future ages is beyond calculation. " The simple 
record of his three short years of active life,' 7 says a liberal his- 
torian, " has done more to regenerate and soften mankind than 
all the disquisitions of philosophers and all the exhortations of 
moralists." * 

From this pure fountain, the Christian Church in all its 
branches is continually drawing its highest inspirations and 
recuperative energies. By the influence of the teaching and 
example of the ever-present Christ we see, in unbroken succes- 
sion, from age to age, sinners converted into saints, and sav- 
ages into civilized beings, women emancipated from degrading 
slavery, and children from the tyrannical authority of parents, 
liappy homes created, society regenerated, cruel laws and cus- 
toms abolished, legislation reformed by the spirit of justice and 
humanity, the lower and unfortunate classes elevated, institu- 
tions of charity and philanthropy founded, missionaries going to 
the ends of the earth to dispel heathen darkness with the light of 
the gospel, and steady progress making to transform this sinful 
world into a kingdom of righteousness and peace. 

CHAPTER CCXLIV. 

ASCETIC AND EVANGELICAL MORALITY. 

The difference of creeds is reflected in the sphere of Ethic. 
We must distinguish two main types of Christian morality: 
ascetic and evangelical. The former is represented by the 

* Leeke, History of European Morals, vol. ii., p. 10. 



ASCETIC AND EVANGELICAL MORALITY. 427 

Catholic Church, both Greek and Roman- the latter by the 
Protestant Churches. The one predominated in the Middle 
Ages, the other in modern times. 

The Graeco-Roman theory makes a distinction between a com- 
mon morality for all, which consists in keeping the Ten Com- 
mandments, and an uncommon morality for a spiritual aristoc- 
racy or nobility of monks and priests, which in addition obeys 
" the evangelical counsels," so called, of voluntary poverty, vol- 
untary celibacy, and absolute obedience. The Protestant theory 
enjoins the same obligations upon all, and teaches the right use 
of property and marriage rather than poverty and celibacy, 
temperance rather than abstinence. The Catholic finds the 
moral ideal in the ascetic and monastic life, which tends to 
raise exceptional saints, but to lower the morals of the people. 
The Protestant seeks the moral ideal in the faithful perform- 
ance of the social duties in the family, the state, and the church. 
Flight from the world is the perfection of Catholic piety and 
virtue ; transformation of the world which God has made is 
the perfection of Protestant piety and virtue. 

Asceticism is found in all religions, but reached its noblest 
form in the Christian Church. It appeared first within the 
congregation ; then in the isolation of hermit life ; and last in 
the convent, as a pure church of the elect, outside of the mixed 
Church of the world* 

Monasticism was a wholesome reaction against the corrup- 
tions of heathenism and against the worldliness which crept 
into the Church after Constantine. It became a powerful mis- 
sionary agency in christianizing and civilizing the barbarians 
of Europe. 

The saints of the Greek and Roman Church are monks and 
nuns and priests who led a life of ascetic self-denial and conse- 
cration, and performed miracles in their lives, or by the touch 
of their dead bones. The Acta Sanctorum record their extraor- 
dinary deeds. Laymen, and fathers and mothers of children, 
are not found in the Roman calendar. 

Protestantism has few exceptional ascetic saints, but it has 
created the pastoral family and raised the standard of general 
morality for laymen as well as clergymen. 

The results of the two systems are apparent when we com- 

* On the development of asceticism and monasticism, see Schaff's 
Church History, vol. iii., pp. 147 sqq. 



428 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

pare the intellectual and moral condition of Roman Catholic 
with that of Protestant countries and nations : Italy with 
Scandinavia, Spain with England and Scotland, Austria with 
Prussia, Belgium with Holland, the Roman Catholic cantons 
with the Protestant cantons in Switzerland, southern with 
northern Ireland, French Canada with English Canada, Mexico 
or Brazil with the United States. 

This fundamental difference affects also the standard of the 
common morality. Romanists emphasize meritorious works 
and measure their value by quantity rather than by quality. 
Protestants lay stress on the spirit and motive of works and 
measure their value by quality rather than by quantity. The 
former, following the Epistle of James, make works as well as 
faith a condition of justification j the latter, with Paul, demand 
works as fruits of faith and evidence of justification. The 
Catholic is legalistic, can never do enough, and seldom attains 
to a serene assurance of faith and peace of conscience ; the 
Protestant relies on the full satisfaction of Christ, disclaims 
any merit of his own, moves in the sphere of Christian liberty 
and cheerful gratitude. The one is governed by absolute obe- 
dience to the Church, and by self-imposed mortifications; the 
other by conformity to the law and example of Christ as an 
all-sufficient, living and ever-present Saviour, with whom it is 
the privilege of every believer to commune directly without 
human mediators. 

CHAPTER CCXLV. 

HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN ETHIC. — THE PATRISTIC PERIOD. 

Neander: Geschichte der clwistliclien Ethik (posthumous, 1864). — 
Wuttke: Christliche Sittenlehre, vol. i., pp. 108-242 (3d ed.). — H. J- 
Bestmann : Geschichte der christlichen Sitte (Theil I. : Die sittl, Stadien, 
Nordl. 1880 ; Theil II. : Die kathol. Sitte ; 1 Lief. : Die judenchristl. Sitte, 
1882).— W. G-ass: Geschichte der christlichen Ethik (Berlin, 1881-87, 2 
vols.). — Th. Ziegler: Geschichte der Ethik (1881; Part II. , Strasburg, 
1892; also under the title, Geschichte der christlichen Ethik). — F. Jodl : 
Geschichte der Ethik in der neueren Philosophic (Stuttgart, 1882). — Ch. E. 
Luthardt : Geschichte der christlichen Ethik (Leipzig, vol. i., 1888, vol. ii., 
1893). — W. E. H. Lecky: History of European Morals from Augustus to 
Charlemagne (London and New York, 1869, 2 vols.). — Sidgwick: Outlines 
of the History of Ethics (London, 3d ed., 1892). 

The history of Christian Ethic runs parallel with the history 
of Christian life, but the practice preceded the theory, and the 



HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN ETHIC. 429 

science of moral theology followed the science of dogmatic 
theology. 

The Ante-Mcene Period. 

Ancient Christianity in the Roman Empire presents a strik- 
ing contrast to the moral corruption and putrefaction of the 
Roman Empire. The doctrines of a common creation, common 
redemption and common destination of man for immortality 
and glory gradually wrought a peaceful moral revolution in 
society. Christianity recognized the divine image in every 
man ; raised the humble and lowly ; enjoined love to God and 
man, even an enemy, as the supreme duty 5 made chastity a 
fundamental virtue ; elevated woman to dignity and equality 
with man; upheld the sanctity and imdolability of the mar- 
riage tie, and thus laid the foundation for a well-regulated 
family life and a happy home, from which the state is built up. 
It moderated the evils and undermined the foundations of 
slavery ; it emancipated children from the tyrannical control 
of parents; denounced the exposure of children as murder; 
made relentless war upon the bloody games of the arena and 
the shocking indecencies of the theater, upon cruelty and op- 
pression ; infused into a heartless and a loveless world the 
spirit of love and brotherhood, and into legislation the spirit 
of justice and humanity, and established the first institutions 
of benevolence and charity, which have since been multiplied 
from generation to generation. 

The oldest Church manual, called The Teaching of the Twelve 
Apostles, from the close of the apostolic age, begins with a 
Jewish-Christian catechism which is built upon the Sermon on 
the Mount, and presents the Christian life as the way of life, 
contrasted with the life of sin as the way of death. It rises 
far above the heathen moralists, and shows the predominant eth- 
ical character of early Christianity. It condenses man's duty 
into the sentence : " The Way of Life is this : first, Thou shalt 
love God who made thee ; secondly, thy neighbor as thyself ; 
and all things whatsoever thou wouldst not have done to thee, 
neither do thou to another." This is the negative form of the 
golden rule. The Gospels (Matt. 7 : 12 ; Luke 6 : 31) give the 
positive form, which is much stronger, since there is a great dif- 
erence between doing no harm and doing good. The Didache 
directs that the Lord's Prayer be repeated thrice a day, lays 



430 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

much stress upon fasting, and seems to contain the germ of 
the ascetic doctrine of perfection or a higher morality when 
it says (ch. vi. 2), "If thou art able to bear the whole yoke 
of the Lord, thou shalt be perfect (comp. Matt. 19 : 21) ; but if 
thou art not able (comp. Matt. 19: 11; 1 Cor. 7: 7), do what 
thou canst." 

The anonymous Epistle to Diognetus, the Apologies of Justin 
Martyr, the practical treatises of Tertullian, the Epistles of 
Cyprian, give us a full view of the holy lives and heroic deaths 
of the Christians in times of persecution, but with a decided 
leaning to ascetic morality, which began to be organized in the 
beginning of the fourth century. 

The Post-Nicene Period. 

With the union of church and state in the fourth century, the 
world, by a wholesale water-baptism, rushed into the Church 
and swept into it all the vices of heathen Rome. In opposi- 
tion to this mixed and worldly Christianity the monastic sys- 
tem was developed and spread with great rapidity. It was 
strongly favored by all the Greek and Latin Fathers, though 
not without protest. The patristic and mediseval Church is 
ascetic in theory and so far unprotestant. 

Athanasius, " the father of orthodoxy," wrote the life of St. 
Anthony of Egypt, " the father of monks," and made monas- 
ticism known in the West. St. Chrysostom, the greatest 
preacher of the Greek Church, was himself a monk, and reluc- 
tantly left the solitude of his cell for the pulpit in Antioch and 
Constantinople. 

Ambrose of Milan (d. 397), an ethical character, and, like 
Cyprian, a model bishop of the old Roman type, describes the 
moral duties of clergymen in his work De Officiis Ministrorum, 
which is a pendant to Cicero's well-known work of the same 
name. He makes piety the foundation of all virtues, and lays 
stress on the grace of humility, which was unknown to the 
ancients. He places the highest aim of man's life in likeness 
to God. He christianizes the principal or cardinal virtues, 
sapientia — in reference to God, justitia — towards our fellow- 
men, fortitiido — in the trials of life, temperantia — towards our 
own person. The Christian realizes the ancient ideal of a vir 
Justus et sapiens. In special tracts on virgins and widows, and 



HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN ETHIC. 431 

in his epistles, he glorifies virginity as the perfection of Chris- 
tian virtue. He praises the virgins who committed suicide to 
save their chastity under persecution, as holy martyrs. He 
makes no allowance for a second marriage of widows. He 
opposes resistance to violence in self-defense, and is averse to 
war and the death penalty. He raised a righteous protest 
against the first bloody execution of heretics (the Priscillianists 
in Spain). He commends charity and almsgiving as the chief 
virtues and as a second baptism, which has the power of cover- 
ing a multitude of sins, not only once, but as often as these 
virtues are exercised. 

Jerome (d. 419), the mediator between the East and the 
West, the translator of the Latin Bible, the Catholic ideal of a 
learned monk, exerted an incalculable influence upon his and 
future generations, inferior only to that of his younger con- 
temporary, Augustin. He far surpassed all the Fathers as an 
enthusiastic and eloquent advocate of ascetic piety. He com- 
mended it in his epistles and legendary biographies of the 
earliest monks, and defended it against the objections of Jovin- 
ian, Helvidius, and Yigilantius. He induced the descendants of 
the proud patrician families of Rome to turn their sumptuous 
villas into monastic retreats. He himself labored hard, though 
not quite successfully, to gain absolute control over the animal 
passions, and fought many a battle with the devil in the Syrian 
wilderness. He praises " the desert where the flowers of Christ 
are blooming, the solitude where the stones of the New Jeru- 
salem are prepared, the retreat which rejoices in the friendship 
of God." He exalts celibacy far above marriage, whose chief 
use consists in giving birth to brides of Christ.* " Since I 
am about," he says in his work against Helvidius, " to draw a 
comparison between virginity and marriage, I beseech you, my 
readers, not to think that I have disparaged marriage in prais- 
ing virginity or made any severance between the saints of the 
Old and New Testaments. . . . The former were under a dis- 
pensation suited to their days, but we under another upon 
whom the ends of the world are come. Whilst that law re- 
mained, ' Increase and multiply and replenish the earth' (Gen. 
1 : 28), and l Cursed is the barren who does not bear children 
in Israel/ all married and were given in marriage, and, leaving 

* " Laudo nwptias, laudo conjugium, sed quia miM virgines generant." — 
Ep. xxii., 20. 



432 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

father and mother, became one flesh. But when that voice 
sounded, ' The time is short/ it goes on, ' Let them that have 
wives be as though they had none' (1 Cor. 7: 29)." He then 
draws a vivid contrast between the distracting cares and trials 
of a married wife with the single devotion of a virgin to God ; 
without considering that trials are a wholesome discipline for 
the development of Christian manhood and womanhood, and 
that celibacy also has its dangers and temptations. St. An- 
thony reminded the anchorites: "Woe to him that stands 
alone, for if he falls he has no one to raise him up." Jerome 
himself informs us how in the midst of his self-imposed ascetic 
mortifications his fancy tormented him with obscene images of 
Roman banquets and dances. 

On the supreme duty of truthfulness he shared the loose 
notions inherited from the Greek sophists. He explained away 
the collision between Paul and Peter at Antioch (Gal. 2 : 11) as 
a mere stroke of pastoral policy, or an accommodation of both 
apostles to the weakness of the Jewish Christians, at the expense 
of truth — an interpretation against which Augustin rightly 
protested. In his controversial writings Jerome shows such 
vanity, intolerance and bitterness of temper that we are alter- 
nately attracted and repelled, and vacillating between admira- 
tion for his greatness and pity for his weakness.* 

Augustin (d. 430) passed through the deepest experience of 
sin and grace, and left us in his Confessions an abiding monu- 
ment of a holy life. He wrote valuable treatises on several 
moral topics, and a book, Be Moribus Ecclesice Catliolicce. In 
these and in his life-work, De Civitate Dei, which was written 
in view of the approaching collapse of the Roman Empire, he 
scattered moral ideas which exerted almost as much influence 
as his dogmatic views. His pessimistic anthropology depreci- 
ated the value of the natural virtues, which, however praise- 

* While Erasmus admired Jerome as " tlieologorum princeps," Luther 
hated him, and called his book against Jovinian " ein schdndUch Buck" (a 
shameful book). Cardinal Newman, before his transition from Anglo- 
Catholicism to Romanism, exhibited the conflict of sound moral feeling with 
Church authority in his judgment on Jerome : "I do not scruple to say, 
that, were he not a saint, there are things in his writings and views from 
which I should shrink ; but as the case stands, I shrink rather from put- 
ting myself in opposition to something like a judgment of the catholic ( ?) 
world in favor of his saintly perfection." The first English translation 
of the principal works of Jerome has just been published by Canon Fre- 
mantle, and forms vol. vi. of Schaff and Wace's "Nicene and Post-Nicene 
Library," Second Series, New York and Oxford, 1893. 



HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN ETHIC. 433 

worthy and useful in civil life, lie regards rather as vices, be- 
cause they are inflated with pride.* He appeals to Rom. 14 : 
23: " Whatsoever is not of faith is sin;" but "faith" has in 
this connection a wider sense of moral conviction of duty or 
"the informing and confirming conscience" (as Bengel ex- 
plains) ; moreover, the apostle speaks only of Christians, and 
not of the heathen, who have a guide of action in their con- 
science, as he asserts elsewhere (Rom. 2 : 14). According to 
Augustin, it is the grace of God alone which creates a new 
spiritual and moral life in man, and this grace works irresist- 
ibly in the elect according to an eternal and unchangeable pur- 
pose. His denial of human freedom and his doctrine of abso- 
lute predestination seem to leave no room, logically, for a vin- 
dication of divine justice, and for human guilt. If man is only 
free to sin or if he must sin, how can God justly condemn him ? 
But Augustin and Calvin escape the ethical difficulty at the 
expense of logic, and enjoin the strictest morality; for their 
sense of God's holiness is stronger than their sense of man's 
sinfulness, and they connect election inseparably with sanctifi- 
cation and perseverance to the end. 

Augustin defended, in his treatises on Marriage, Virginity, 
and Widowhood, the monastic ideal, though with more moder- 
ation than Jerome. Herein he agreed with his opponent Pela- 
gius, who advocated the freedom of choice and moral ability 
in the interest of monastic morality. He was influenced in his 
conversion by reading the life of St. Anthony, the pattern saint 
of the desert; he dismissed after his baptism his faithful mis- 
tress, the mother of his only son, and devoted himself to single 
life. He praised marriage as a sacrament, but placed virginity 
above it as more holy, and appealed to the example of Paul, 
who permits but does not recommend marriage. He finds, after 
all, the earthly perfection of a Christian in retreating from pub- 
lic life and in ascetic imitation of the example of Christ. He 
introduced monasticism into North Africa, but confessed that 



* "Vitia sunt potius quam virtutes." — De Civitate Dei, xix., 25. Another 
saying of Augustin (which I cannot just verify) is, " Omnis infidelium 
vita peccatum est." The Lutheran Formula of Concord expresses nearly 
the same view (p. 700), and declares all good works of the natural man, 
"revera coram Deo peccata, hoc est, peccatis contaminata, et a Deo pro pec- 
catis et immunditio reputairtur propter naturae hwmance eomiptionem." How 
different is Christ's merciful sentence on those who knew him not, in the 
parable of the judgment (of the heathen world) ! (Matt. 25 : 35-40.) 



434 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

he had found some of the worst, as well as some of the best 
men and women in convents. He wrote a special work against 
the idleness and spiritual pride of monks.* 

God is to Augustin the only true and highest good, and 
union with God is the end of man. Love to God is the virtue 
of virtues, which gives true value to all other virtues. In the 
present world the Christians are only pilgrims towards the 
heavenly home, but by hope and love they anticipate the future 
life of the vision of God and rise above the misery of the pres- 
ent existence. 

CHAPTER CCXLVI. 

MEDIEVAL MORALS. 

The pope and the monk ruled the Latin Church in the 
Middle Ages. Hierarchical domination and ascetic self-renun- 
ciation co-operated with each other for the conversion of the 
barbarians and the supremacy of the spiritual over the secular 
power. Gregory VII., the greatest of popes, was a monk bear- 
ing the triple crown ; St. Bernard, the greatest of monks, was 
the arbiter of rival popes. The monks were the standing army 
of the popes in fighting against disobedient kings and emper- 
ors and in enforcing celibacy upon the clergy. 

The morality of the Middle Ages presents startling contrasts 
of a sublime faith and degrading superstition, of angelic pur- 
ity and gross sensuality, of self-denying charity to suffering 
Christians, and barbarous cruelty to infidels, Jews and heretics. 
When the crusaders, under the lead of Godfrey de Bouillon, 
who refused to wear a crown of gold where his Saviour had 
worn a crown of thorns, came in sight of Jerusalem, they fell 
on their knees, kissed the earth, laid aside their armor, and 
advanced as pilgrims with prayers and penitential hymns; 
but after the capture of the holy city they massacred the 
Mohammedan population to the extent of more than 70,000, 
burned the Jews in their synagogues, and waded in blood to 
the Holy Sepulchre to offer up their prayers and thanks. 
The Acts of Councils and the Penitential Books reveal a 
low state of morals, even among the clergy, who were charged 
with vulgar vices, and were tempted by celibacy to unnat- 

* De Opere Monachorum, written after 401. 



MEDIEVAL MORALS. 435 

ural sins. The discipline of the Church was often perverted 
for the extortion of money, and the Roman curia, with its in- 
satiable greed of gold, reaped the chief benefit, but finally also 
met the punishment of the Reformation. 

Pope Gregory the Great (d. 604), a moderate Augustinian in 
theology, and a Benedictine, united the monastic ideal with the 
hierarchical interest, and thus fairly introduced the spirit of 
mediaeval morality. He wrote Magna Moralia, a sort of com- 
pend of Christian Ethic, in the form of a threefold exposition 
of the Book of Job, whom he represents as the type of Christ. 
His Regula Pastor alts was the favorite text-book for pastors 
during the Middle Ages. 

Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274) represents the height of the medi- 
aeval Ethic as well as Dogmatic. He treats the ethical material 
in the second part of his Summa Theologiw* He combined the 
views of Augustin and Aristotle and worked them up into a 
system. He makes, with Aristotle, happiness the end of human 
life, but finds happiness, with Augustin, in the vision of God 
and assimilation to God, who is the source and goal of all 
existence, and the supreme good. He divides the virtues into 
three classes, moral, intellectual and theological. The first two 
were known to Aristotle. The moral virtues are the four car- 
dinal virtues. The three theological and highest virtues are 
faith, hope and charity j they are infused by divine grace and 
have a supernatural aim. Charity is the crown of all. Sins 
are divided into carnal and spiritual, and into venial (pardon- 
able) and mortal. The three monastic vows of voluntary pov- 
erty (Matt. 19 : 21), celibacy (Luke 14 : 26 ; 1 Cor. 7 : 32), and 
obedience are the way to perfection (Matt. 6 : 44). 

St. Thomas defends the papal power over the state to the 
extent of deposing princes and absolving subjects from the 
oath of allegiance. He gives to the people the right to depose 
a tyrannical ruler. He justifies the punishment of heretics by 
death, because murderers of the immortal soul are more dan- 
gerous and guilty than murderers of the mortal body. He 
teaches the doctrine of a treasury of hyper-meritorious works 
from which the pope can dispense indulgences for the release 
from the temporal punishments of sin. The abuse of in- 



* In the Prima Secundw, and Secunda Secundce. They occupy about one 
half of the Summa, which is divided into three parts. 



436 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

diligences occasioned the reformation of Luther, who hated 
Thomas Aquinas as the abettor of all the heresies of popery. 

The teaching of the " angelic doctor," as Thomas is called, 
rules' the Roman Church to this day. 

The discipline of the Church and auricular confession pro- 
duced a number of penitential books which regulate the order 
of penitence and prescribe specific punishments for certain 
sins, as drunkenness, fornication, avarice, perjury, homicide, 
heresy, adultery. They were the first books of casuistry (see 
below, ch. ccxlix.).* 

The Mystics advocated a more inward and spiritual piety 
in connection with ascetic practices. Some lost themselves in 
the maze of pantheism ; others, like Tauler, Thomas a Kempis 
and Staupitz, preached and practiced a simple, fervent and 
practical piety in imitation of the humble life of Christ. The 
ripest fruit of this devotional mysticism is the well-known work 
of Thomas a Kempis (d. 1471), which has been published in all 
European languages and is to this day the most popular book 
of devotion for Catholics and Protestants. But the moral ideal 
even of this book is monastic. Staupitz, the fatherly friend of 
Luther, connects the mediaeval piety with the Reformation, but 
he could not accept Luther's doctrine of justification by faith 
alone, nor the separation from the Catholic Church. 

The imitation of Christ is the moral ideal of the best writers 
in the Greek, Latin and Evangelical Churches and forms a 
connecting link between them ; but it is differently understood 
and carried out, by the Catholics in a literal and external sense, 
by the Protestants in a spiritual and internal sense. 

CHAPTER CCXLVII. 

HISTORY OF PROTESTANT ETHIC. 

The Reformation introduced the evangelical and social, as 
distinct from the ascetic and monastic, ideal of morality (see 
ch. ccxliv.). Luther renewed the battle of Paul for Christian 
liberty against Jewish legalism and self-righteousness. His 
strongest weapon was the Epistle to the Galatians, which he 

* The penitential literature has recently been enriched by an American 
historian, Henry Charles Lea : A Formulary of the Papal Penitentiary in 
the TJiirteenth Century (Philadelphia, 1892). 



HISTORY OF PROTESTANT ETHIC. 437 

called " my wife." He broke the bondage of papal tyranny and 
achieved at Worms the first decisive victory for liberty of con- 
science. He magnified the importance of personal responsi- 
bility over passive obedience to absolute authority. He found 
in the doctrine of justification by faith peace of conscience, 
which he had failed to obtain by the self-imposed mortifications 
of the cloister. He emphasized solifidian justification at the 
expense of progressive sanctification, and faith at the expense 
of good works. But he meant by faith a living power which, 
far from being idle, must do and always will do good works, 
as a good tree will produce good fruit. He rejected the anti- 
nomianism of Agricola, and deplored with Melanchthon the 
abuse of evangelical liberty which was the temporary conse- 
quence of the overthrow of Catholic discipline. In political 
life the Lutheran Church has always been an obedient hand- 
maid of the State. 

Melanchthon, the humanist among the Reformers, began the 
science of Protestant Ethic in his Epitome of Moral Philosophy 
(1538 ; thoroughly revised, 1550) on the basis of Aristotle, 
whom Luther hated - , but he distinguished sharply between 
natural morality and Christian morality.* 

The Lutheran Church, after the conflict with popery, was 
involved in internal dogmatic feuds, which were unfavorable 
to the cultivation of the theory and practice of Christian Ethic, 
and excited the worst passions. Melanchthon prayed to be 
delivered from " the fury of theologians." The champions of 
an intolerant orthodoxy forgot that charity is the chief of 
virtues, and uncharitableness the worst of heresies. 

In opposition to dead orthodoxy, John Arndt (d. 1621) de- 
fended the claims of practical piety in his True Christianity, 
one of the most popular books of devotion. Spener (d. 1705), 
the founder of Pietism, labored in the same spirit and intro- 
duced wholesome reforms. Pietism produced many benevolent 
institutions and societies; it was the salt in the Lutheran 
state-churches during the rationalistic period, and is so largely 
even to this day, especially in Wiirtemberg. It bears some 
resemblance to asceticism in the Roman Church, and still more 
to Methodism. 

The ethical factor was much stronger in the Swiss than in the 

* On his merits as a moral teacher, see Gass, Geschiclite der cliristlichen 
Ethik, vol. ii., pp. 92-105; and Ziegler, vol. ii., pp. 454 sqq. 



438 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

German Reformers. Zwingli and Calvin opposed the pagan- 
ism of papal Rome, and aimed at a complete moral renovation 
of Church and State. Calvin was a legislator and disciplina- 
rian as well as a theologian. Himself a Christian stoic, fearing 
God, but fearless of men, he succeeded, after a long conflict 
with pseudo-Protestant libertinism, in establishing a model 
church in Geneva, which John Knox, the Scotch reformer, 
from personal observation declared to be "the most perfect 
school of Christ that ever was in the earth since the days 
of the Apostles/ 7 and which Dr. Valentin Andreae, a bright 
and shining light of the Lutheran Church of Germany, fifty 
years after Calvin's death, characterized as "the perfect in- 
stitute of a perfect republic and moral discipline "; adding, 
"What a glorious ornament of the Christian religion is such 
a purity of morals ! We must lament with tears that it is 
wanting with us, and almost totally neglected. If it were not 
for the difference of religion, I would forever have been chained 
to that place [Geneva] by the agreement in morals, and I 
have ever since tried to introduce something like it into our 
churches. No less distinguished than the public discipline 
was the domestic discipline of my landlord, Scarron, with its 
daily devotions, reading of the Scriptures, the fear of God in 
word and in deed, temperance in meat and drink and dress. 
I have not found greater purity of morals even in my father's 
home." His father was the chief author of the Formula of 
Concord, the last of the symbolical books of the Lutheran 
Church. 

Calvinism produced the severest, the most energetic and 
most aggressive morality of Protestantism. It is muscular 
Christianity, which bows before no earthly despot. It edu- 
cated God-fearing, manly, independent characters, like the 
Huguenots of France, the defenders of liberty and independ- 
ence in Holland, the Puritans of England, the Covenanters of 
Scotland, and the Fathers of New England, who were willing 
to sacrifice life for their conscientious convictions. It for- 
tified statesmen and soldiers, like Coligny, Knox, William of 
Orange, and Oliver Cromwell, in their struggle with despotic 
power. The Reformed Churches, including the Waldenses, 
have suffered more persecutions from the Roman Church, and 
produced more martyrs during the single reigns of Mary Tudor 
of England, Philip II. of Spain, and Louis XIV. of France, 



HISTORY OF PROTESTANT ETHIC. 439 

than the whole Christian Chnrch during the first three cent- 
uries under heathen emperors. The blood of these martyrs 
was the seed of political and religious liberty in modern Europe. 

The separation of Ethic from Dogmatic, which was first made 
in the Reformed Church, promoted its scientific treatment. 

Independent of the Church, the science of philosophical Ethic 
was cultivated by Spinoza (ffihica, 1677), Leibnitz (Theodicy, 
1710), Wolff (Philosophia Moralis, 1750), and Kant {Metaphysik 
der Sitten, 1785, and Kritik der Praktisclien Vernunft, 1788). 
Kant was a rationalist, but by his doctrine of the " categor- 
ical imperative " of practical reason, and of the " radical evil," 
made a near approach to Christian Ethic. Fries influenced 
De Wette. 

Socinianism of the sixteenth and Rationalism of the eigh- 
teenth century departed from the Augustinian basis of the 
Reformation and developed a Pelagian morality, but without 
its ascetic and monastic features. The Unitarianism of Eng- 
land and America follows in the same line, and exalts the eth- 
ical above the dogmatic features of Christianity. 

The revival of evangelical theology in the nineteenth century 
had a wholesome effect upon Christian life. Schleiermacher 
(d. 1834) marks an epoch in ethical as well as dogmatic the- 
ology. He broke the power of Rationalism. He was a master 
both of philosophical and theological Ethic, and derived the 
latter, like Dogmatic, from the Christian consciousness or ex- 
perience, which comes down in an unbroken stream from the 
person and work of the Redeemer. 

Since Schleiermacher the science of Christian Ethic has been 
greatly advanced by Rothe, Schmid, Martensen, Dorner, Gass, 
Harless, Wuttke, Luthardt, Frank, and Hermann Weiss. 

English and American literature is very rich in works on 
Moral Philosophy, but very poor in works on Christian Ethic. 
This is surprising, if we consider that the Anglo-Saxon race has 
produced the finest type of Christian civilization and Christian 
character, and develops the greatest activity for the improve- 
ment of society and the spread of Christianity at home and 
abroad. 



440 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 



CHAPTER CCXLVIII. 

LITERATURE ON ETHIC. 

I. Eoman Catholic writers. See a large list in Kihn, Encyklop. und 
Method., pp. 444-447. 

Alfonso Maria da Liguori (1696-1787 ; founder of the order of Liguo- 
rians, a canonized saint, and created a doctor of the Church by Pius IX., 
1871) : Theologia Moralis, based upon Busenbaum's Medulla; first published 
at Naples, 1748, and since in a great many editions ; also, in his Works, 
ed. by Hugues, Regensb. 1842-47, 38 vols. 

P. Joh. Petrus Gury (S. J., 1821-66) : Compendium Theologice Moralis; 
first published 1850, and very often since; for the use of priests at the 
confessional, highly commended by Roman authorities for brevity and 
precision, but condemned by Protestants and moderate Catholics as Jesu- 
itical and dangerously minute in the description of the mysteries of mar- 
ried life. 

German Catholic works on Ethic {Sitterilehre) by Sailer (1818), Hirscher 
(5th ed. 1851), Probst (1877), Werner (1888). 

Dollinger and Reusch (Old Catholics) : GescMchte der Moralstreitig- 
keiten in der rbm. katholischen Kirche seit dem 16ten Jahrhundert (Nord- 
lingen, 1889, 2 vols.). 

II. Protestant works. English : 

W. Whewell (1794-1866, Cambridge) : Elements of Morality, including 
Polity (London and New York, 1845), and Lectures on Systematic Morality 
(1846). 

Alexander Bain (Aberdeen) : Mental and Moral Science : A Compen- 
dium of Psychology and Ethics (London, 1868; new ed. 1872). The second 
Part (pp. 460-751) treats of the Ethical Systems from Socrates to Cousin 
and Jouffrey. 

Paul Janet : Elements of Morals {Elements de Morale, Paris, 1869 ; transl. 
by Mrs. Corson, New York, 1884) ; and his Theory of Morals {La Morale, 
Paris, 1874; transl. by Mary Chapman, Edinburgh and New York, 1884). 

L. P. Hickok: A System of Moral Science (Boston, 1880). 

Noah Porter: Elements of Moral Science (New York, 1885). 

* James Martineau : Types of Ethical Theory (Oxford, 1885 ; 3d ed. rev., 
1889, 2 vols.). 

Henry Sidgwick (Professor of Moral Philosophy, Cambridge) : Hie 
Methods of Ethics (London, 4th ed. rev., 1890). 

H. Hughes : Principles of Natural and Supernatural Morals (London, 
1890-91, 2 vols.). On the empirical basis. 

Borden P. Bowne (Boston) : The Principles of Ethics (New York, 
1892). 

* Newman Smyth (New Haven) : Christian Ethics (New York, 1892). 
Popular Manuals on Moral Science by A. Alexander (New York, 1852), 

F. Wayland (77th ed., Boston, 1865), M. Hopkins (The Law of Love and 



CASUISTRY. 441 

Love as Laiv, 1869), A. P. Peabody (New York, 1873), H. Calderwood 
(London, 7th ed. 1881), J. Bascom (New York, 1879). 

III. German works by Schleiermacher (Die Christliche Sitte, ed. by- 
Jonas, Berlin, 1843), * Eichard Rothe (Theologische Ethik, Wittenberg, 
1845-48, 3 vols. ; 2d ed. 1867-71, 5 vols.), Harless (Stuttgart, 1872; 7th 
ed. 1875 ; translated by Morrison and Findlay, Edinb. 1868), * Chr, Fr. 
Schmid (Stuttgart, 1861; Engl. trsl. of the first Part by W. J. Mann, 
Philadelphia, 1872), * Wuttke (Berlin, 1861; 3d ed. Leipzig, 1874-75, 
2 vols. ; abridged trsl. by J. P. Lacroix, Edinburgh, 1873, 2 vols.), * Mar- 
tensen (first in Danish, then in German, 1871 ; 6th ed. Berlin 1893 ; Engl, 
transl. of vol. i. from the Danish by C. Spence, vol. ii. from the German 
by Sophia Taylor, 1873-82), Lange (Heidelberg, 1878), * Luthardt (The 
Moral Truths of Christianity, Leipzig, 1872 ; 4th ed. 1889 ; transl. by Sophia 
Taylor, Edinb., 1873), Beck (1882, 3 vols.), Frank (Erlangen, 1883 and 
1887), * Dorner (Berlin, 1885 ; trsl. by Mead and Cunningham, New York, 
1887), Gass (Berlin, 1881-87, historical), Hermann Weiss (Freiburg i.B., 
1889 ; so far only the general introduction, to be followed by a systematic 
treatise). 

CHAPTER CCXLIX. 

CASUISTRY (CASUISTIK). 

Casuistry is a branch of moral theology, and is also closely 
connected with pastoral theology {cur a animarimi). It deals 
with the cases of conscience (casus conscientice) which arise from 
the conflict of duties. It is a directory and method rather than 
a science. Kant calls it " the dialectic of conscience." 

Casuistry has been cultivated as a separate science with great 
fullness by Roman Catholic moralists, especially by Jesuits, for 
the use of priests at the confessional. It discusses the permis- 
sibility of acts which are sinful in themselves, but may be jus- 
tified, or at least pardoned, under extenuating circumstances, 
such as suicide to escape disgrace, tyrannicide to free the peo- 
ple from oppression, dueling (which is forbidden by civil law, 
but upheld by the military code of honor), homicide in self- 
defense, pious fraud or lying for a good purpose, sacrifice of 
chastity as an alternative for denial of faith. Casuists give 
general rules of conduct in such doubtful and embarrassing 
cases, which must ultimately be decided by the individual con- 
science. 

Casuistry grew up during the Middle Ages in connection 
with the doctrine of penance and absolution, and for the 
use of confessors, who must know the degrees of guilt. The 
numerous Libri Pcenitentiales determine the ecclesiastical pun- 



442 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

ishments for the different sins and offenses. A summary of 
penitential regulations passed into the canon law. 

The first systematic work of the kind was prepared by the 
Dominican Raymond of Pennaforte (d. 1275) under the title, 
Summa de Casibus Pamitentialibns, which came into general use 
in the thirteenth century. After the Reformation, the Jesuits 
cultivated casuistry in opposition to the rigor of the Jansenists, 
and brought it into disrepute by the minute anatomy of vices 
and indelicate discussion of immodest topics, on the plea of the 
requirements of the confessional, and by their lax theory of 
" Probabilism." * Pascal, in his Provincial Letters (1656), has 
severely chastised this Jesuitical casuistry, which was corrupt- 
ing in its effect, though not in design. The Popes Alexander 
VII. and Innocent XI. condemned several propositions of the 
Probabilists. 

The Reformation was unfavorable to casuistry and the whole 
penitential system. Protestantism leaves the regulation of 
each man's conduct to his own conscience, as enlightened and 
strengthened by a study of the law of God. But most persons 
require some guidance in doubtful cases j hence in the seven- 
teenth century casuistry was cultivated also by Protestant 
divines. In the University of Cambridge, England, there is a 
special professorship of Moral Theology or Casuistical Divinity. 

Literature. 

The chief Roman Catholic Works on Casuistry are by Pusenbaum (S. J., 
d. 1668), Medulla Tlieologice Moralis; Alfonso Maria da Liguori (d. 1787) : 
Praxis Confessarii; and Oury (S.J., d. 1866) : Casus Conscientiw in Prceci- 
puas Questiones Theologice Moralis. See chapter ccxlviii. and a list in 
Kihn's EncyMop., pp. 453 sq. 

The chief Protestant casuists are Perkins (1602), Bishop Hall (1649), 
Bishop Sanderson (1678), Jeremy Taylor (JDuctor Dubitantium, 1660), 
Eichard Baxter {Christian Directory, 1673), and Spener (Consilia et 
Judicia Theologica, 1709). 

CHAPTER CCL. 

SOCIOLOGY. 

Sociology, or the science of hnman society, its constitntion, 
phenomena and development, is closely related to Ethic and 

* The principle of Probabilism is: "Si est opinio probabilis, licitum est 
earn sequi, licet opposita sit probabilior:" 



SOCIOLOGY. . 443 

Political Economy, but it is narrower in one respect and wider 
in another. It falls within the line of duties to our neighbor, 
and embraces the question of the highest good (which is the 
kingdom of God). It may be treated philosophically and theo- 
logically. Sociology is the theory of society ; socialism is a 
practical movement which aims at the reconstruction of soci- 
ety and an improvement of the condition of the laboring 
classes. There are different kinds of socialism, peaceful and 
anarchistic, Christian and atheistic, with modifications between 
the extremes. 

Socialism is a symptom of the present age in Europe and 
America. The burning questions of the relations between the 
rich and the poor, the employer and the laborer, the master 
and the servant, the right use and distribution of wealth, and 
the best methods of elevating the lower classes are of such prac- . 
tical importance as to demand a Christian Sociology which 
should treat these questions from the standpoint of the gospel. 
The best and only effective remedy of the social evils so much 
complained of is the consistent application of the Christian 
spirit of justice and charity to legislation and to individual 
and social life. 

Sociological Literature. 

Alex, von Oettingen : Die Moralstatistik und die christliche Sittenlehre. 
Versuch einer Socialetliik auf empirischer Grundlage (Erlangen, 1868-74, 
2 Parts ; Theil I. in 2d ed. 1874). By the same : Die Moralstatistik in Hirer 
Bedeutung fur eine Socialetliik (3d. ed. Erlangen, 1882). 

Herbert Spencer : The Study of Sociology (London and New York, 
1873 ; 11th ed. 1885) ; Principles of Sociology (London, 1876 ; 3d. ed. 1885) ; 
The Data of Ethics (1879, 5th ed. 1888) ; Descriptive Sociology (1872-81, in 
8 Parts). The last is a compilation by different writers, in which facts 
illustrating Spencer's doctrines are culled from the works of travelers and 
ethnologists. 

Elisha Mulford (1833-85) : TJw Nation : Tlie Foundation of Civil Order 
and Political Life in the United States (New York, 1870; 9th ed. 1884). 

R. D. Hitchcock (d. 1887) : Socialism (New York, 1879). 

J. H. W. Stuckenberg (Berlin) : Christian Sociology (New York, 1880). 
Compare the chapter on "Church and Socialism" in his The Age and the 
Church (Hartford, Conn., 1893, pp. 273 sqq.). 

Robert Ellis Thompson (Philadelphia) : De Civitate Dei. The Divine 
Order of Human Society (Philadelphia, 1891), 



6 

444 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 



CHAPTER CCLI. 

ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTIC. 

Ecclesiastical Geography and Statistic is a systematic view 
of the present condition of Christendom. It exhibits history 
at rest.* Bnt the Statistic of to-day becomes history to-mor- 
row. This is true especially of numerical Statistic in a new 
and rapidly growing" country like the United States, while in 
the Orient things are more stationary. 

This branch of theological science includes the following 
divisions : 

I. Geographical Statistic. A description of the territorial 
extent of Christendom and the boundary lines of the different 
Churches. The Greek or Oriental Church has its home in the 
Turkish Empire, Russia and Greece; the Latin Church, in 
southern Europe, and Central and South America, with a very 
large representation in nearly all Protestant countries ; the 
Protestant Churches, in western and northern Europe, and in 
North America, with mission fields in all heathen lands. The 
Greek Church is the Christianity of the East, the Latin is the 
Christianity of the South, the Protestant is the Christianity of 
the North and West. The first embraces the Greek and Sla- 
vonic, the second chiefly the Latin, the third the Teutonic races. 
The missionary geography extends to all heathen countries. 

II. Numerical Statistic. An account of the numerical 
strength of Christendom as a unit versus heathenism, Moham- 
medanism and Judaism, and of the various churches and de- 
nominations. This is Statistic in the narrow sense of the term. 
Figures are facts, but they often deceive. Numerical strength 
is no index of moral strength and influence. The handful of 
apostles and primitive disciples was a match for the whole 
Roman Empire. The same applies to countries : little Pales- 
tine did more for religion and morals, and little Greece more 
for philosophy and art, than the huge Assyrian, Babylonian, 
Medo-Persian, Roman and Russian empires. In modern times, 
Switzerland, Holland, England and Scotland have a historical 
importance far beyond their size as compared with much larger 
countries. 

* ScMozer, " Eine stillstehende Gesclrichte." 



MATERIAL FOR STATISTIC. 445 

III. Social Statistic. A description of the moral status 
of Christendom and its branches and ramifications, as the result 
of its past history and the basis of its future development. It 
includes the creed, polity, administration, cultus, rites and cere- 
monies of the different churches, their relation to the civil 
power, their institutions, and organized activities and charities. 



CHAPTER CCLII. 

MATERIAL FOR STATISTIC. 

The material for this science is found in the official census 
reports of governments and churches, in ecclesiastical almanacs 
or year-books, in reports of travelers, and in religious period- 
icals. Travel in different countries and personal intercourse 
with representative men are necessary for lively and accurate 
accounts. The adage of Goethe applies here : 

" Wer den Dichter mil verstelm, 
Muss in Dichter' 's Lands gelin." 

In old countries and churches, little reliable information on 
numerical Statistic can be obtained, least of all in the Greek 
Church and the Oriental sects, more in the Roman Church, 
most in the Protestant Churches. In Great Britain and the 
United States almost every denomination publishes the pro- 
ceedings of its synods or conferences or conventions, and 
year-books with lists more or less complete of its minis- 
ters, churches, membership, sabbath-schools, contributions, etc. 
Much information can be gathered from the proceedings of the 
General Conferences of the Evangelical Alliance (nine were 
held between 1851 and 1891), the Pan-Presbyterian, the Pan- 
Anglican Councils, the Pan-Methodist Conferences, the Cath- 
olic and Protestant Church Congresses, and similar collective 
assemblies which convene regularly or occasionally in the large 
capitals from all parts of the world. 



446 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

CHAPTER CCLILL 

COMPARATIVE STATISTIC. — LESSONS OF STATISTIC. 

This statistical material should be so worked up as to show 
the comparative strength of the various sections of Christen- 
dom, and its progress over false religions. 

The results are upon the whole encouraging. What Chris- 
tianity may lose in one direction is more than made up in an- 
other. It moves with steady march with the sun from East to 
West, from Asia to Europe, from Europe to America and Aus- 
tralia, and acts back again from West to East. It gradually 
conquered the paganism in the old Roman Empire; it con- 
verted and civilized the barbarian races of the Middle Ages ; 
it colonized America and Australia, and spreads the nets of 
missions over all the countries of the globe. It increases more 
rapidly than the population of the world, while nearly all other 
religions are declining. Protestantism is gaining over Roman- 
ism ; evangelical religion is gaining over infidelity ; the moral 
and spiritual condition of Christianity is upon the whole in 
advance of former ages, though it may be behind in some spe- 
cific virtues; the final triumph of Christianity is secured by 
its past history. No other religion is possible for the civilized 
world. The only alternative is between the Christianity of 
Christ as exhibited in the New Testament, and agnosticism 
and unbelief which can never satisfy the human heart. 

Nevertheless the parables and eschatological discourses of 
Christ do not warrant the hope of a universal conversion in the 
present dispensation ; on the contrary, they predict a great 
apostasy and terrible conflict before the second Advent and 
the final consummation when " the kingdom of the world shall 
become the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ, and he shall 
reign forever and ever" (Rev. 11 : 15). 

Literature. 

Statistic is as yet in its rudiments, and a comprehensive scientific work 
is a desideratum. 

Wiltsch : Handbuch der Icirchlichen Geographie und Statistik (Berlin, 
1846, 2 vols. ; with an Atlas ; English trsl. "by John Leitsch, London, 1859, 
2 vols.). 



COMPARATIVE STATISTIC. — LESSONS OF STATISTIC. 447 

Julius Wiggers : Kirchliche Statistik (Hamburg and Gotha, 1842-43, 

2 vols.). 

Edward A. Freeman : The Historical Geography of Europe (London, 
1881, 2 vols.). 

A large number of periodicals and special works on different countries. 
See a list in Hagenbach. (12th ed.), pp. 386-390, but it needs to be supple- 
mented by American periodicals, whose number is legion. 

For American Statistic : 

Daniel Dorchester : TJie Problem of Religious Progress (New York, 
1881, 603 pp.); Christianity in the United States (New York, 1888; chap- 
ters vii. and viii., pp. 750 sqq.). The author tries to show that during the 
nineteenth century evangelical Protestantism in the United States has 
steadily progressed in a greater ratio than the population. 

Tlie Census Bulletin, giving the results of the census of 1890, published 
in numbers, under the direction of Dr. Carroll, 1893. The fullest statis- 
tical information of any country, preceded by brief sketches of the differ- 
ent denominations and sects into which American Christianity is divided. 



f\ 



BOOK V. 

PEACTICAL THEOLOGY. 



CHAPTER CCLIV. 

GENERAL CONCEPTION OF PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

The term Tlieologia Practica for a special department of theological 
study was first introduced "by Gisbert Voetius (1588-1676; Professor of 
Theology at Utrecht), in his Selectee Bisputationes (1667), and adopted "by 
Witsius, Vitringa, and other Dutch divines. (See Aehelis, Praktisclie 
Theologie, 1890, vol. i., p. 2.) Kihn and other Eoman Catholic and some 
English scholars (e.g., A. Cave) prefer the title Pastoral Theology; but this 
is only a branch (Poimenic). Rabiger calls it Ecclesiastic, but this also is 
only a branch (the theory of the Church). 

Practical Theology is the science and art of the various func- 
tions of the Christian ministry for the preservation and propa- 
gation of the Christian religion at home and abroad. It is the 
crowning consummation of sacred learning to which all other 
departments look, and by which they become useful for the up- 
building of the kingdom of God in the world. It forms the 
connecting link between the theological seminary or univer- 
sity and the Church, between the professor's chair and the pas- 
tor's pulpit. It shows how to utilize and popularize the results 
of biblical, historical and systematic theology for the general 
benefit of the Christian community. It makes the experience 
and wisdom of the past available for the present and the future. 

Theology in all its branches is not a barren study for the 
satisfaction of intellectual curiosity ; it is eminently practical 
and fruitful in its spirit and aim. But some parts of it are 
more directly practical than others, and constitute what is tech- 
nically called Practical Theology. 

Heretofore this department has been exclusively confined to 

448 



BRANCHES OF PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 449 

clerical duties and functions. But the recent development of 
the lay energies in Protestant Churches, especially in England 
and America, requires an additional branch, or a corresponding 
enlargement of the other branches. The Protestant doctrine 
of the general priesthood of believers implies the co-operation 
of the members of the congregation with the pastor in all de- 
partments of Christian activity, especially in church govern- 
ment, in the Sunday-school, and in mission work. 

Notes. 

I. Practical Theology is itself a theory (Homiletic=theory of preach- 
ing ; Catechetic=theory of teaching) ; and on the other hand all other 
"branches of theology are practical in their bearing. Practical theology is 
an art (j£X VT l) &s well as a science {e-KLaHjiiri). Preaching especially is the 
art of eloquence applied to the pulpit. 

II. Definition: Vinet (Theol. past., p. 1) defines Practical Theology: 
"C'est Vart apres la science, on la science se resolvant en art. C'est Vart d'ap- 
pliquer utilement dans le ministere les connaissances acquises dans les trois 
mitres domaines, purement seientijiqnes, de la theologie." Ebrard : " Practical 
Theology is not a science [ ?] , but an art by which the acquired knowledge 
becomes practical." Schleiermacher calls it " the crown of the theological 
study." Hagenbach: "Practical Theology embraces the theory of the 
ecclesiastical activities and functions as they proceed either from the 
Church as a whole, or from its individual members and representatives in 
the name of the Church." Similarly Nitzsch, Schweizer, Gaupp. Nitzsch : 
"Die Tlieorie der hircMichen Ausiibung dcs Christenthums." M'Clintock: 
"It is an art and science. As an art, it seeks to employ usefully in the 
Church the scientific knowledge acquired in the three other departments 
of Theology which naturally precede it." Van Oosterzee : "The science 
of labor for the kingdom of God as called into exercise by the pastor and 
teacher of the Christian Church." Achelis : "The doctrine of the self- 
actualization (SeTbstbethcitigung) of the Church for its edification." Zez- 
schwitz : " The theory of the continuous self-realization (Selbstoertoicklich- 
ung) of the Church in the world." Cave : " Pastoral Theology is the science 
of the functions of the Christian Church." Heinrici : "Tlieorie des kircli- 
lichen Handelns." 

CHAPTER CCLV. 

BRANCHES OF PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

We divide Practical Theology into the following branches : 

1. Theory of the Christian Ministry : The Minister an Am- 
bassador of Christ (prophet, priest, and king). 

2. Ecclesiology or Ecclesiastic (Church Law and Church 
Polity) : The Minister as Ruler. 

3. Liturgic : The Minister in Worship (as priest). 



450 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

4. Homiletic r The Minister as Preacher. 

5. Catechetic : The Minister as Teacher. 

6. Poimenic : The Minister as Pastor. 

7. Evangelistic : The Minister as Evangelist and Missionary. 

The duties of the laity should be considered in each depart- 
ment. These branches necessarily interlap each other more or 
less at various points. Liturgic, in the wider sense, includes 
Homiletic and Catechetic ; in the narrower sense, only the acts 
of worship proper and the administration of the sacraments. 

Other Divisions. 

Schleiermacher, Schweizer, Hagenbach, and Rothe : 1. Ministerial 
functions relating to Church service (Kirchendienst). 2. Church govern- 
ment (Kirchenregiment) . Schleiermacher puts Church service first, Schwei- 
zer and Rothe reverse the order. An unequal division, which overloads 
the first. Moreover, Church government is also Church service, and 
Church service is Church government ; the minister rules chiefly from the 
pulpit, and serves as a ruler, as Christ came not to be ministered unto, but 
to minister (Matt. 20 : 26-28). 

Schweizer subdivides the theory of Church service as follows : 

1. Theory of Worship : (a) Liturgic ; (b) Homiletic. 2. Pastoral The- 
ology : (a) Official ; (b) Free. 3. Halieutie : (a) Catechetic ; (b) Theory 
of Missions. 

Hagenbach : 1. The gathering of a Christian congregation : (a) Halieu- 
tie ; (5) Catechetic. 2. The guiding and furthering of Christian life in 
the congregation : (a) Liturgic ; (b) Homiletic ; (c) Pastoral Theology. 
3. Organization and administration of the Church at large : (a) Church 
Polity ; (b) Church Law. 

Nitzsch arranges the ministerial functions into edifying (erbauende) and 
organizing (ordnende) functions. 

Claus Harms : 1. The Preacher; 2. The Priest; 3. The Pastor. 

Rothe : 1. Church Government : (a) Church Law ; (6) Polemic. 2. Church 
Service : (a) Liturgic ; (b) Homiletic ; (c) Catechetic ; (d) Poimenic. 

Rothe, who first followed Schleiermacher's twofold division, proposed 
in his last lectures on Encycl. (p. 136) this arrangement : 1. Church Pol- 
ity ; 2. Liturgic ; 3. Homiletic ; 4. Catechetic ; 5. Pastoral Doctrine ; 6. The 
Person of the evangelical clergyman. 

Rabiger: 1. Theory of Church organization: (a) Church Polity; (b) 
Church Law. 2. Theory of Worship : (a) Liturgic ; (b) Homiletic ; (c) 
Catechetic ; (d) Pastoral Care. 3. The Science of Christian Culture : (a) 
Theory of Missions ; (&) Ecclesiastical Sociology. 4. Ecclesiastical Didac- 
tic : («) Symbolic ; (&) Theory of the Ministerial Office. 

Van Oosterzee : 1. Homiletic ; 2. Liturgic ; 3. Catechetic ; 4. Poimenic. 

Gretillat (1885) : 1. Oicodomique : the theory of the edification of the 
Church. 2. Alieutique : theory of the extension of the Church. 3. Polem- 
ique : theory of the defense of the Church. 

M'Clintock : 1. Functions of the Church, (a) Conservative Functions : 
Catechetic, Homiletic, Pastoral Care, Duties of the Laity. (&) Aggressive 



HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 451 

Functions : Home Missions, Foreign Missions, Civilization. 2. Organiza- 
tion and Government of the Church. 

Cave : 1. The Theory of the Church. 2. The Theory of Worship (Litur- 
gic). 3. The Theory of Preaching (Homiletic). 4. The Theory of the 
Training of the Young (Catechetic). 5. The Theory of the Training of 
Pastors and Church Workers (Pedagogic). 6. The Theory of the Care of 
Souls. 7. The Theory of Christian Charities. 8. The Theory of Missions. 

Heinrici : 1. Liturgic. 2. Homiletic. 3. Catechetic. 4. Pastoral The- 
ology. 5. Church Law. 6. Church Polity. 7. Theory of Missions. 

CHAPTER CCLVI. 

HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

1. The roots of Practical Theology are in the Pastoral Epis- 
tles of Paul to Timothy and Titus, which contain directions for 
founding, training and governing churches, and for the proper 
treatment of individual members, old and young, widows and 
virgins, backsliders and factious persons, with parting counsels 
of the Apostle to his beloved disciples and fellow- workers. They 
exhibit the transition from the simplicity of the apostolic age 
to the more definite Church polity and discipline of the second 
century. They are rich in practical wisdom and full of en- 
couragement to every pastor. The Epistles to the Corinthians, 
the Epistle to Philemon, and the Epistles to the Seven Churches 
in the Apocalypse contain also important hints for practical 
theology. 

2. The post-apostolic literature on the duties of the ministry 
and Church polity is closely interwoven with the ethical and 
casuistic literature which has been previously noticed. The 
first works of the kind are Church Manuals or Directories of 
worship and discipline, and Collections of laws and customs 
which claim, directly or indirectly, apostolic origin and author- 
ity. Such are the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, the Apostolic 
Canons, and Apostolic Constitutions. 

3. Chrysostom (347-407), the first pulpit orator among the 
Fathers, described in his work On the Priesthood, written be- 
fore 381 with youthful fervor and eloquence, the importance, 
duties and trials of the Christian ministry on the basis of the 
then prevailing conception of a real priesthood and sacrifice* 
He holds up Paul as a model for imitation, and requires whole- 

* liepl LepuovvTjQ, Dc Sacerdotio, often translated, best by W. R. W. 
Stephens, in Schaff's edition of Chrysostom's Works (1889). 



452 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

souled consecration to Christ and unselfish devotion to the 
Chnrch. The book is marred by the justification of pious fraud 
under the name of economy or good management, which was 
shielded by the examples of Abraham, Jacob, David, and Paul 
(Acts 16 : 3 5 21 : 26). The maxim that the end sanctifies the 
means is much older than Jesuitism. Origen and St. Jerome 
perverted the contention of Peter and Paul at Antioch (Gal. 
2 : 11) into a hypocritical farce, for the purpose of convincing 
the Jewish Christians that circumcision was not necessary, and 
thus involved both Apostles in hypocrisy. 

The Greek Church furnished the first works on Catechetic. 
Cyril of Jerusalem and Gregory of Nyssa. 

Among the Latin Fathers, Ambrose takes the lead with his 
De Officiis Ministrorum, which belongs also to the literature on 
Ethic. 

Augustin gives useful hints on homiletic in the fourth book 
of his De Doctrina Christiana (426), and on Catechetic in his De 
Catechizandis Rudibus (400). 

The Regula Pastoralis of Pope Gregory I. was the chief man- 
ual of the clergy during the Middle Ages. 

Isidor of Seville, Walafrid Strabo, and Rabanus Maurus 
wrote similar works for the instruction of the clergy. St. 
Bernard addressed to Archbishop Henry of Sens his De Mori- 
bus et Officiis JEpiscoporum. Duranti (d. 1292) wrote Rationale 
Divinorum Officioram (8 books). 

The Penitential books (Libri Poenitentiales) belong both to 
pastoral and ethical literature. 

Among the forerunners of the Reformation, Wiclif wrote a 
tract, De Officio Fastorali, which has been published by Lechler 
(1863). 

4. After the Reformation the education for the priesthood 
became an education for the duties of the preacher and pastor. 

Zwingli described his ideal of an evangelical minister in his 
" Shepherd" (Der Hirt). 

The divines of the seventeenth century discussed the pastoral 
duties in connection with Dogmatic (locus de ministerio) and Ethic 
(casus conscientim). Valuable contributions by Hyperius (1562), 
Porta (1585), Kortholdt (1698), Spener (Pia Desideria, 1675), 
Baxter (The Reformed Pastor, and Christian Directory, 1673), 
Pierre Roques (Le pasteur evangelique, 1723), Mosheim (1754). 

Special chairs for Practical Theology were first established 
at Helmstadt and Tubingen. 



HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 453 

5. The scientific treatment of Practical Theology as an organ- 
ism dates from Schleiermacher, who was pastor (of Trinity 
Church, Berlin) as well as professor. In his Outlines of Theo- 
logical Study (1811) he connected Practical Theology closely with 
the Church and assigned it the last and most important place 
in the course of theological study, calling it "the crown." 
He made the first attempt to organize the various branches 
under the two chief divisions of Church service and Church 
government. His brief hints have been fruitful. He deliv- 
ered also special lectures on Pastoral Theology, which were 
published long after his death. 

The field of Practical Theology as a systematic whole has 
since been cultivated by L. Hiiffell (Giessen, 1822 ; 4th ed. 1843, 
2 vols.), Claus Harms (Kiel, 1830; 3d ed., with notes, 1878), 
Ph. Marheineke (Berlin, 1837), * C. J. Nitzsch (Bonn, 1847-67 ; 
2d ed. 1859-68, 3 vols.), K. F. Gaupp (Berlin, 1848-52), Schleier- 
macher (posthumous ed. by Frerichs, Berlin, 1850 ; Works, vol. 
xiii.), # A. Vinet (Paris, 1850 ; German translation from the 
French by Hasse, 1852), C. B. Moll (Halle, 1853), J. H. A. 
Ebrard (Konigsberg, 1854), F. Ehrenfeuchter (Gottingen, 1859), 
W. Otto (Dillenburg, 1867 ; Gotha, 1869, 2 vols.), F. L. Stein- 
meyer (Berlin, 1874-79, 5 Parts), G. von Zezschwitz (Leipzig, 
1876-78, 3 Parts), Theodosius Harnack (Erlangen, 1877, 2 
Parts), * J. J. van Oosterzee (translated from the Dutch into 
German by Matthia and Petry (Heilbr., 1878 sq., 2 vols.), 
*E. Chr. Achelis (Freiburg i.B., 1890-91, 2 vols.), Alfred 
Krauss (Freiburg i.B., 1890-93, 2 vols.), K. Knoke (1892). 

Roman Catholic writers : J. M. Sailer (Miinchen, 1788 sq. ; 
5th ed. Sulzbach, 1853, 3 vols.), J. Widmer (Augsburg, 1840), 
A. Graf (Tubingen, 1841), F. Vogl (7th ed. of Gollowitz, Re- 
gensburg, 1855, 2 vols.), J. Amberger (Regensburg, 1851 sq., 
2 vols. ; 4th ed. 1883 sq.), J. Schuch (6th ed. Linz, 1882). 

In the English language we have no original work which em- 
braces all the branches of Practical Theology, but numerous 
special treatises on Preaching and Pastoral Care, by Fairbairn, 
Kidder, Phelps, Hopkins, Shedd, Broadus and others. The 
Practical Theology of J. J. van Oosterzee, who was professor and 
preacher at Utrecht, is of all foreign manuals best adapted for 
English students, and has been translated from the Dutch by 
Maurice J. Evans.* 

* In H. B. Smith and Schaff, " Theological and Philosophical Library " 
(New York and London, 1878). 



454 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

CHAPTER CCLVII. 

THEORY OF THE CHRISTIAN MINISTRY. 

The Theory of the Christian Ministry discusses the general 
questions which underlie the other departments of Practical 
Theology, such as the origin, nature and aim of the Christian 
ministry ; the difference between clergy and laity ; the internal 
and external call to the ministry ; preparation ; examination ; 
licensure; ordination; installation; support; personal char- 
acter and conduct. 

Our Saviour appointed twelve Apostles and endowed them 
with the Holy Spirit for the founding of the Christian Church 
among Jews and Gentiles. They were the first of an un- 
broken succession of ministers who should make disciples of all 
nations by baptizing and teaching them to observe all things 
whatsoever Christ commanded them ; and for this purpose he 
promised to abide with them " all the days, even to the consum- 
mation of the world" (Matt. 28 : 20). 

The apostolic office contains the germ of the various minis- 
terial offices which gradually were developed according to the 
needs of the Church. The primitive officers are : 

1. For the Church at large : Apostles, Prophets, and Evan- 
gelists. 

2. For local congregations : Presbyters or Bishops for ruling 
and teaching, and Deacons (and Deaconesses) for the care of 
the poor and the sick, and the temporalities of the congregation. 

The topics of this branch are usually discussed in Homiletic and 
Poimenic. The most important modern writers on the apostolic and post- 
apostolic ministry are Rothe, Ritschl, Lightfoot, Hatch, Harnack Weiz- 
sacker, Loening, and Ch. de Smedt. See the literature in Schaff, Church 
History, vol i., pp. 481-484. 

CHAPTER CCLVIII. 

DIFFERENT CONCEPTIONS OF THE MINISTRY. 

The Christian minister is a servant and ambassador of Christ, 
acting in his name and by his authority, and carrying forward 
his work in the world. As Christ is prophet, priest, and king, 



ECCLESIOLOGY. 455 

so the minister unites, in a restricted sense, these three offices. 
As prophet, he teaches the people from the pulpit and the lect- 
ure-room the way of salvation in Christ. As priest, he offers 
the spiritual sacrifices of prayer and praise, and administers the 
sacraments and religious rites. As king, he rules his flock and 
takes part in the general government of the Church. 

In the Greek and Roman Churches, the minister is lost in 
the priest and separated from the people. He offers sacrifice 
at the altar, and dispenses absolution at the confessional. His 
personal character is overshadowed and shielded by his official 
character. 

In the Protestant minister the preaching and teaching func- 
tion is the most prominent ; the pulpit is his throne. Hence a 
higher order of education is required, and his official authority 
must be sustained by personal purity and dignity. He stands 
not aloof from the people as a member of a distinct class, like 
the priest in the Jewish dispensation, but is associated and in- 
terwoven with the life of the congregation. 



CHAPTER CCLIX. 

ECCLESIOLOGY. 

Ecclesiology treats of the Church as a visible organization, 
its constitution, offices, administration, and relation to civil 
society. 

The word church is derived from xopicocdv, ivhat belongs to the 
Lord, and is used in four senses : (1) a particular congregation • 
(2) the Church universal ; (3) a denomination or confession (as 
the Greek Church, the Roman Church, the Episcopal Church, 
the Lutheran Church, the Presbyterian Church, etc.) j (4) a 
church building* (The last two senses are extra-biblical.) 

In the New Testament the corresponding term is £%%X.7]oia, 
which means a congregation or assembly.! It occurs only twice 
in the Gospels, once in the local sense of a particular congrega- 
tion (Matt. 18 : 17), and once in the general sense of the Church 
of Christ or the whole body of believers (Matt. 16 : 18) ; but in 

* Kvpianbv 6o)/ua, or Kvpianrj olnia, as Basilica from (3o.gl?iev(;, Begia from rex. 

t From eKKaleu, to call out. The word is used of any gathering of the 
people for deliberation (Acts 19: 32, 41). In the Septuagint it is often 
equivalent to Jcahal, the assembly of the Israelites. 



456 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

the Acts, Epistles and Revelation it occurs 111 times, mostly in 
the particular or local sense. 

On the other hand, our Lord uses the term "kingdom of 
heaven " or " kingdom of God n 123 times in the Gospels (count- 
ing the parallel passages) $ while in all other books from the 
Acts to Revelation it occurs only 33 times. 

This suggests a difference as well as a resemblance. The 
Church of Christ and the kingdom of God are intimately re- 
lated, but not identical. The Church dates from the day of 
Pentecost after the Ascension. Christ speaks of it as future : 
" Upon this rock I will build my Church." * The kingdom is 
older and will last forever. It is a wider, deeper and more 
spiritual conception : the kingdom embraces heaven and earth, 
eternity and time, the whole moral government of God, all the 
spiritual forces and energies of his people, the saints of the Old 
and New Dispensation, the Church militant and the Church 
triumphant. It is chiefly, but not exclusively, manifest and 
embodied in the Church and operative through the Church as 
its organ. The Church on earth is the training-school for the 
kingdom of heaven. Hence it is so often spoken of by the 
Apostles, the builders of the Church. 

The difference between the two ideas is apparent in many 
passages where we could not with propriety substitute the 
Church for the kingdom ; as, " Thy kingdom come " (Matt. 6 : 
10) ; " Seek ye first the kingdom of God" (6 : 33) ; " Theirs," or 
" of such " (the poor in spirit, and the children) " is the kingdom 
of heaven " (5 : 3 ; 19 : 4) ; " The kingdom of God cometh not 
with observation, ... it is within you" (or "in the midst of 
you," Luke 17 : 20, 21). f These words were spoken before the 
Church was founded. In other passages the kingdom is spoken 
of as future, to be fully realized only at the second advent 
(Matt, 25 : 34 ; 26 : 29 5 Luke 1 : 33 j Acts 14 : 22 ; 1 Cor. 15 : 24 ; 
2 Pet. 1:11; Rev. 11:15). 

The Roman Church identifies herself with the Church, and 
the Church with the kingdom of God. She confines the Church 
to the dominion of the papacy, and excludes the Greek Church 
as a schism, the Protestant Churches as heretical sects. Prot- 
estants distinguish between the invisible Church, which is one 
and universal and includes all who believe in Christ as their 

* OIko6oju7/(jo) juov rf]v kKnTirjciav. 

t Comp. also such passages as Rom. 14 : 17 ; 1 Cor. 4 : 20 ; 15 : 50. 



CHURCH LAW. 457 

Lord and Saviour, and the visible Churches, Greek, Roman and 
Protestant, which embrace all nominal and baptized Christians, 
good and bad. Distinct from both conceptions, but more nearly 
identical with the invisible Church, is the kingdom of God. 

Ecclesiology is divided into two parts : Church Law (Kirch- 
enrecht) and Church Polity (Kirclienverfassung). 

Literature. 

J. McElhinney : The Doctrine of the Church : An Historical Monograph, 
ivith a Full Bibliography of the Subject (Philadelphia, 1871). 

Julius Muller : On the Visible and Invisible Church (in his Dogmatische 
Abhandlungen). 

A. B. Bruce: The Kingdom of God; or, Christ's Teaching according to 
the Synoptical Gospels (Edinburgh, 4th ed. 1893). 

On the development of the idea of the Church since St. Augustin, see 
Schapf, Church History, vol. vi. ; pp. 520-536, and the literature there quoted. 



CHAPTER CCLX. 

CHURCH LAW. 

The Church Law or Ecclesiastical Law (Kirchenrecht), as 
distinct from State Law or Civil Law, comprehends all the 
canons and regulations which the Church from time to time 
has adopted for its government, administration, worship and dis- 
cipline. It embodies the governmental experience and wisdom 
of many ages, as the creeds of the Church embody its doctrinal 
belief. The disciplinary rules of the Church are called canons 
(xavdvsc), in distinction from the doctrinal decrees {deer eta) or 
dogmas of the Church, and from the laws (vo^oi, leges) of the State. 

I. The oldest collections of ecclesiastical law pretend to be 
directly or indirectly of apostolic origin and sanction, but are 
clearly post-apostolic. They originated in the Orient, and 
make no reference to the Roman Church, though some claim a 
fictitious sanction from Bishop Clement of Rome. They exist 
in various forms, in Greek, Syriac, Arabic, and Ethiopic MSS. 
The chief are the following : 

(1) The Did ache, or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, 
probably of Syrian origin, from the end of the first or the 
beginning of the second century. It forms in language and 
spirit the bridge from the apostolic to the episcopal age, or 
between the Pastoral and the Ignatian Epistles. It contains a 



458 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

summary of moral instruction based on the Decalogue and the 
Sermon on the Mount ; directions for the celebration of bap- 
tism and the eucharist, and concerning discipline and church 
offices ; and concludes with an exhortation to watchfulness in 
view of the coming of the Lord and the resurrection of the 
saints. This remarkable book was much used in the early 
Church, and then disappeared till it was rediscovered by Bryen- 
nios in 1873, in a convent of Constantinople, and first printed 
in 1884. The substance of it survived in the seventh book of 
the "Apostolical Constitutions." * 

(2) The (pseudo-) Apostolical Constitutions are the most 
important and complete clergyman's manual of the ancient 
Church. This work is in its literary form a pious fraud, and pro- 
fesses to be a bequest by all the Apostles dictated to the Roman 
Bishop Clement, but it is a gradual growth and was not com- 
pleted till the middle of the fourth century in Syria. It is 
based upon the Bible, oral tradition, the Didache, just men- 
tioned, and the Didascalia, or The Catholic Doctrine of the Twelve 
Apostles and Holy Disciples of Our Redeemer (which dates from 
the middle of the third century and is extant in a Syriac ver- 
sion in twenty-six chapters). It embodies also the decrees of 
early councils at Antioch, Neo-Caesarea, Nicaea, Gangra, and 
Laodicea. The " Constitutions n contain, in eight books, moral 
exhortations, ecclesiastical laws and usages, and liturgical for- 
mularies. The compiler shows some sympathy with Semi- 
Arianism and Apollinarianism. Later interpolations were re- 
jected as heretical by the second Trullan Council in 692. The 
Latin Church has only adopted the fifty canons appended to the 
eighth book.f 

(3) The (pseudo-) Apostolical Canons (fifty, afterwards 
eighty-five), drawn up, according to tradition, by Clement of 
Rome, are brief rules and prescriptions for the clergy, ap- 
pended to the "Apostolic Constitutions," and are probably from 
the same author or compiler ; for he refers to them in the 85th 
canon as among the sacred Scriptures. The Greek Church 
adopted the whole collection of eighty-five canons as authentic 

* The MS. is now in the library of the Greek patriarch of Jerusalem. 
Editions and monographs by Schaff (The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles ; 
or, Tlie Oldest Church Manual; New York and Edinburgh, 3d revised ed. 
1889), by Bryennios (in G-reek), Harnack (in German), Jacquier (in French), 
and Savi (in Italian). 

t Editions by Turrianus, Mansi, Harduin, Ueltzen (1853), Paul de La- 
garde (1854 and 1862), Pitra (1864). Comp. Fr. Xav. Funk, Die Apostol- 
ischen Konstitutionen (Eottenburg, 1891). 



CHURCH LAW. 459 

and binding, but the Latin Church only the smaller collection 
of fifty canons* 

II. The Canon Law, or Corpus Juris Canonici, is the code of 
laws and usages of the Latin Church in the Middle Ages, and 
rules the Roman Church in great part to this day. It forms a 
parallel to the Justinian Corpus Juris Civilis. The material is 
derived from the Bible, the old Roman law, the writings of the 
Fathers, the decrees of the general councils, the decretal epistles 
and bulls of the popes. It is based on older collections, includ- 
ing the pseud o-Isidorian decretals. The foundation of this 
codification is the Decretum Gratiani, published at Bologna, 
1150, which arranged, systematized and harmonized the dis- 
cordant canons, and became a useful text-book of lectures in 
the universities.t This Decretum, or Liber Decretorum, is divided 
into three parts. The first part treats, in 101 Distinctiones, of 
the sources of the canon law, the clergy, ordination, consecra- 
tion, the papal power. The second discusses, in 36 Causce, dif- 
ferent legal questions, church property and the marriage laws. 
The third, called Liber de Sacramentis, is devoted to the sacra- 
ments, feasts and fasts. The expounders of the canon law are 
called canonists or decretists, in distinction from the legalists 
or expounders of the Roman civil law. 

* Editions "by Mansi, Harduin, in most collections of church laws, and 
by Paul de Lagarde in Greek and Syriac (Lips., 1856). The following are 
specimens : 

" Canon I. 

"Let a Bishop be ordained by two or three Bishops. 

* 

"Canon II. 

" Let a Presbyter, or Deacon, and the other clergy be ordained by one 
Bishop. 

"Canon V. 

"No Bishop, Presbyter, or Deacon shall put away his wife, under pre- 
text of religion ; but if he put her away, let him be suspended ; and, if he 
persist, let him be deposed. 

"Canon VI. 

" No Bishop, Presbyter, or Deacon shall engage in worldly business ; 
and, if he do, let him be deposed. 

"Canon VII. 

" If any Bishop, Presbyter, or Deacon shall celebrate the holy day of 
Easter before the vernal Equinox, as the Jews do, let him be deposed." 

t Gratian called it, Discordantium Canonum Concordia. He was a Ca- 
maldolensian monk, and taught church law in a convent at Bologna about 
the same time with Irnerius, the restorer of Roman jurisprudence, and 
teacher of the civil law. These two may be called the founders of the 
University of Bologna, which became for several centuries the nurse of 
civil and ecclesiastical law, with the proud device : " Bononia docet." 



460 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

The Decretum Gratiani was enlarged by the collections of 
several popes, Gregory IX. (1230), Boniface VIII. (1298), Clem- 
ent V. (1313), John XXII. (1317), to which were added, in 1500, 
the Extravag antes communes {i.e., extra Decretum vagantes). These 
six collections make np the full Corpus juris canonici, and were 
officially edited nnder this title by a papal commission of Greg- 
ory XIII., in Rome, 1582, in 5 vols. 

The Canon Law of Christian Rome and the Civil Law of 
heathen Rome have exerted an incalculable influence on the 
civilization of Europe. Rome, conquered by the barbarians, 
reconquered their children, and, by substituting the law for 
the sword, ruled the Christian world for many centuries. The 
Canon Law shares the virtues and faults of the papacy with 
which it rose and declined. It fortified the hierarchical 
theocracy of the Middle Ages. It attempted to regulate 
human life from the cradle to the grave by the sacramental 
acts of the priesthood. It protected the sanctity of marriage. 
It was a wholesome check upon the wild passions of the 
barbarians and the brutal force of despotic princes. It is 
animated by a spirit of justice and humanity ; it acknowledges 
the brotherhood of men, and prepared the way for the modern 
science of international law. But it sanctions the persecution 
of heretics by fire and sword, and put a restraint upon the 
progress of thought. This overgrown code became at last a 
burden too heavy to be borne, like the traditions of the Jewish 
Elders which made void the Word of God (Matt. 15 : 6), and 
like the yoke of the ceremonial law against which Peter pro- 
tested at the Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15 : 10).* 

Luther burned the Canon Law together with the papal bull, 
Dec. 20, 1520. Calvin called it a barbarous code and a tyranny 
of conscience ; he maintained that the laws of the Church must 
be subject to the law of Christ.f But the Canon Law survived 

* " Customs and laws in every place, 

Like a disease, an heirloom dread, 
Still trail their curse from race to race, 

And furtively abroad they spread. 
To nonsense, reason's self they turn; 

Beneficence becomes a pest ; 
Woe unto thee, that thoiCrt a grandson born ! 

As for the law born ivith us, unexpressed, — 
Tliat law, alas! none careth to discern." 

(From Goethe's Faust.) 

t Instit., Book IV., ch.. x., § 9: " Constitutiones quas vocant ecclesiasticas 
quibus Papa cum suis onerat ecclesiam, dicimus perniciosas esse et impias ; 



COLLECTIONS AND MANUALS OF CHURCH LAW. 461 

the Reformation. It has a permanent historical value, and 
many of its provisions on Church property, benefices, ordina- 
tion, marriage, etc., were revised and re-enacted in Protestant 
State Churches, especially in Germany and England; while 
others were abrogated even in the Roman Church by the Council 
of Trent, and by later papal decretals, and papal concordats with 
modern States which have outgrown the hierarchical suprem- 
acy, demand independence in civil legislation, and protect free- 
dom and progress. 

III. The various Protestant Churches have their own consti- 
tutions and directories of Church polity and worship. The 
best organized Protestant Churches are the Episcopal Church 
of England and the United States, the Presbyterian Churches, 
and the Methodist Episcopal Church. While the Canon Law 
is the product of the Catholic Church independent of the State, 
the ecclesiastical legislation of Protestant State Churches is the 
joint product of Church and State and recognizes the equal or 
superior authority of the State. The constitutions of the 
Churches in the United States are purely ecclesiastical and de- 
nominational. 

CHAPTER CCLXI. 

COLLECTIONS AND MANUALS OF CHURCH LAW. 

I. Collections : 

Corpus Juris Canonici, first published in Eonie, 1582, 5 vols. fol. ; best 
critical edition by iEmilius (Emil) L. Kichter, Leipzig, 1839 ; new ed. (ed. 
Lipsiensis secunda) by iEmilius Friedberg (Leipzig, B. Tauclmitz, 1879, 
1881, 2 vols. fol.). 

John Fulton (Episcopalian) : Index Canonum. The Greek Text. An 
English Translation and a Complete Digest of the Entire Code of Canon Law 
of the Undivided Primitive Church (New York, 1872; 3d ed. 1892, 393 pp.). 
A useful collection. 

William Bright : Notes on the Canons of the First Four General Coun- 
cils (Oxford, 1882). A good commentary on the oecumenical canons. 

W. Andrew Hammond : Definitions of Faith, and Canons of Discipline 
of the Six (Ecumenical Councils (Oxford, 1843) ; an American reprint with 

adversarii nostri sanctas esse et salutares defendant." §11: "Sunt alia 
quoque duo non levia vitia, quce in iisdem constitutionibus improbamus. Pri- 
mum quod magna ex parte inutiles, interdum etiam ineptas observationes prce- 
scribunt : deinde quod immensa carum multitudine opprimuntur piai consci- 
entice, et in Judaismum quendam revolutce umbris sic adhcerescunt ut ad 
Christum nequeant pervenire. " 



462 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

the addition of the constitutions and canons of the Protestant Episcopal 
Church in the United States (New York, 1850). 

John Henry Blunt : The Book of Church Law (London, 1872 ; 4th ed. 
revised by Sir W. G. T. Phillimore, 1885). 

Sir Robert Phillimore : Ecclesiastical Law of the Church of England 
(London, 1873-76, 2 vols.). 

A Summary of the Laws and Eegulations of the Church of Scotland (Edin- 
burgh 1840, and more recent editions). Contains the Acts of the Scotch 
Parliament relating to the Church, the First and Second Books of Disci- 
pline, the Form of Process, Pardowan's Collections, etc. 

II. Books on the theory of Church Law. See full lists in Friedberg, 
pp. 4-6, and in Kihn, pp. 520-531. 

(a) Roman Catholic authors : 

Ferd. Walter : Lehrouch des Kirchenrechts aller christlichen Confes- 
sionen (Bonn, 1822 ; 14th ed. 1871). 

H. Gerlach : Lehrouch des katholischen Kirchenrechts (1869 ; 5th ed. by 
Fr. Xav. Schulte, Paderborn, 1890). A brief but convenient manual. 

G. Phillips: Kirchenrecht (Regensburg, 1845; 3ded. 1855 sqq., 7 vols.). 

F. H. Vering : Lehrouch des katholischen, orientalischen, und protestant- 
ischen Kirchenrechts, mit besonderer Biicksicht auf Deutschland, Oesterreich 
und die Schweiz (Freiburg i.B., 1876; 3d ed. 1893). 

For the history of the Canon Law, see Fr. von Schulte (Old Cath. 
Prof, in Bonn) : Die Geschichte der Quellen und Literatur des kanonischen 
Bechts von Gratian Ms auf die Gegenwart (Stuttgart, 1875-80, 3 vols.). 

{b) Protestant authors : 

J. H. Bohmer : Jus Ecclesiasticum Brotestantium (Halle, 1714 ; 5th ed. 
1756 sqq., 5 vols. 4to). The first great Protestant work on Church Law. 

Emil L. Richter : Lehrouch des kathol. und evangel. Kirchenrechts (Leip- 
zig, 1841; 8th ed. 1877-86, 2 vols.). 

Paul Hinschius : Das Kirchenrecht der Katholiken und Brotestanten in 
Deutschland (Berlin, 1869-88, 4 vols.). 

Emil Friedberg : Lehrouch des katholischen und evangelischen Kirchen- 
rechts (Leipzig, 1879 ; 3d ed. 1889).— R. Sohm : Kirchenrecht, 1892. 

(c) American works : 

Murray Hoffman (Episcopalian) : Law of the Brotestant Episcopal 
Church in the United States (New York, 1850) ; Ecclesiastical Law in the State 
of New York (New York, 1868) ; Bitual Law of the Church (New York, 1872). 

J. W. Andrews (Episcopalian) : Church Law of the Brotestant Episcopal 
Church in the United States (New York, 1883). 

Charles Hodge (Presbyterian) : Discussions in Church Bolity (New 
York, 1878). 

J. A. Hodge: What is Bresbyterian Church Lawf (Philadelphia.) 

William Strong (Presbyterian) : Two Lectures upon the Belation of 
Civil Law to Ecclesiastical Bolity, Broperty, and Discipline (New York, 1875). 

The Constitution of the Bresbyterian Church in the United States of America 
(new ed. Philadelphia, 1893, with the amendments adopted in 1891). 

Samuel J. Baird (Presbyterian) : A Collection of the Acts, Deliverances, 
and Testimonies of the Supreme Judicatory of the Bresbyterian Church in 
America to 1858 (1856 ; 2d ed., Philadelphia, 1858 ; Old School from 1837-58). 



CHURCH POLITY. 463 

William E. Moore (Presbyterian) : Tlie Presbyterian Digest of 1886 : 
A Compend of the Acts and Deliverances of the General Assembly of the Pres- 
byterian Church in the United States of America ( Philadelphia, 1886). 

W. A. Alexander (Southern Presbyterian Church) : A Digest of the 
Acts and Proceedings of the General Assembly, etc. (Richmond, Va., 1888). 



CHAPTER CCLXIL 

CHURCH POLITY. 

We may distinguish the following forms of church polity in 
the order of historical development : 

I. The Apostolic Church government from the day of Pente- 
cost to the death of St. John (A.D. 30-100). Christ undoubt- 
edly founded a visible Church on earth (Matt. 16 : 18), which 
appeared as a distinct society on the day of Pentecost, and 
appointed officers (Apostles) and two sacraments (Baptism and 
the Lord's Supper). 

Out of the apostolate grew gradually the following officers : 
Apostles proper, Prophets, Evangelists, for the Church at large ; 
Presbyters or Bishops, and Deacons (with female Deaconesses), 
for the local congregations. The former are extraordinary 
officers, necessary for the founding of the Church ; the latter 
are ordinary officers, necessary for its preservation. The origi- 
nal identify of Presbyters or Elders, and Bishops or Super- 
intendents, is very evident from a number of passages of the 
New Testament, the Didache, and the Epistle of Clement to the 
Corinthians, and is acknowledged by all scholars. 

II. Congregational Episcopacy, with a bishop at the head 
of each local church, and a number of presbyters and deacons 
under him. The Episcopate was raised above the primitive 
Presbyterate as a permanent presidency. The Ignatian Epis- 
tles (Shorter Greek recension), between 107 and 118, first dis- 
tinguish between the Presbyter and the Bishop. Christ is the 
one universal Bishop of all the churches ; the human bishop 
is the vicar of Christ and center of unity for each congrega- 
tion ; while the college of presbyters and deacons around him 
are the successors of the Apostles. No distinction of order is 
made between the bishops, nor is there a trace of a primacy. 
Ignatius is the first to use the term " Catholic Church," as if 
episcopacy and catholicity sprung up simultaneously. 

III. Diocesan Episcopacy makes the bishop the head of 



464 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

several congregations. It appears towards the end of the sec- 
ond century in the writings of Irengeus and Tertullian, and 
more fully in Cyprian, who is the typical high-churchman of 
the ante-Nicene age, and represents the solidarity of the Epis- 
copate, in connection with, and yet independent of, 'the Roman 
see, as the center of ecclesiastical unity. The dioceses, how- 
ever, were very small as to the number of congregations ; for 
Cyprian could assemble, in 258, a synod of 87 bishops in pro- 
consular Africa, and the schismatical Donatists held, in 308, a 
council of 270 bishops at Carthage. Some were only congre- 
gational bishops over single churches. In larger cities there 
was even more than one bishop 5 for Epiphanius says that 
" Alexandria never had two bishops, as the other cities had." * 

IV. The Metropolitan and Patriarchal system was devel- 
oped after Constantine, when Christianity became the religion 
of the Roman Empire. It was to a large extent conformed to 
the political divisions into pretorian prefectures, dioceses, prov- 
inces, cities and parishes. The apostolic mother churches (secies 
apostolicm, matrices ecclesice), such as those at Jerusalem, Anti- 
och, Alexandria, Ephesus, Corinth and Rome, were always held 
in special reverence as the chief bearers of the pure Church tra- 
dition, but acquired now also a political importance (with the 
exception of Jerusalem). The bishops of the chief cities were 
called Metropolitans in the East, or Archbishops in the West, 
and presided over the bishops of a province Sisprimi inter pares. 
Over the Metropolitans and Archbishops rose the Patriarchs 
of Alexandria, Antioch, Rome, Jerusalem, and Constantinople. 
The title " Patriarch " was originally an honorary title for all 
bishops, but after the Council of Constantinople (381) it was 
restricted to the five mentioned. They had the oversight of 
two or more provinces or eparchies ; they ordained the metro- 
politans ; conducted the oecumenical councils, and united in 
themselves the supreme legislative and executive power of the 
hierarchy. They were equal in rights and jurisdiction, but 
differed in the extent of their diocese and in influence. Rome 
was first, Alexandria second, and Antioch third in rank. After 
the founding of Constantinople (330), the Bishop of this city, 
as the second capital of the empire, competed with Rome for 
the primacy of honor. The fourth oecumenical council at Chal- 

* Mceres. lxviii., c. 7. Compare Hatch, The Growth of Church Institu- 
tions, p. 17. 



CHURCH POLITY. 465 

cedon (451) ordained in its 28th canon that the bishop of New 
Rome, where the emperor and the senate resided, shonld enjoy 
the same privileges as ancient imperial Rome, and be the second 
after her (in honor, not in jurisdiction, which was eqnal). 

From this dates the conflict between the Patriarch and the 
Pope. The Bishop of Rome protested against that canon and 
refused to be pnt on a par with the eastern Patriarchs. Con- 
stantinople owed its ecclesiastical power to its political signifi- 
cance ; while the Roman see goes back to the apostolic age and 
claimed to derive its authority from Peter. 

The Greek Chnrch adheres to the Patriarchal oligarchy of the 
oecumenical councils, and added to the four Patriarchs of the East 
the Patriarch of Moscow, who was succeeded by the holy synod 
of St. Petersburg under the presidency of the Czar of Russia. 

V. The Papal Monarchy, ruled by the Bishop of Rome, 
who claims to be the successor of Peter and the Yicar of Christ, 
and as such the head of the Church universal. The Papacy is 
the most complete and imposing organization which the world 
has ever seen. It rests on the double significance of the city of 
Rome as the political metropolis of the old Roman Empire, 
and as the mother-church of western Christendom consecrated 
by the martyrdom of Peter and Paul. It gradually grew with 
the conversion of the barbarians, and controlled the history of 
Europe during the Middle Ages. It lost by the Reformation 
the most vigorous and progressive nations, but it still com- 
mands from the Vatican with infallible authority the largest 
portion of Christendom. After a long conflict between the 
episcopal or the Gallican and the curial or ultramontane 
Schools — that is, between a constitutional and an absolute 
monarchy — the Roman hierarchy was completed by the Vati- 
can Council of 1870, which declared the pope to be the Bishop 
of bishops and the infallible and final judge in all matters of 
faith and discipline. 

VI. Anglican Episcopacy, with two archbishops (Canter- 
bury and York), and the royal supremacy (which Henry VIII. 
substituted for the authority of the pope). It is modified and 
improved in the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United 
States, which has no political headship, is independent of the 
State, self-supporting and self-governing, and admits the laity 
to a share in the legislative functions of the lower house of 
representatives. 



466 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC 

VII. The Episcopal Government of the Swedish and Dan- 
ish Lutheran Churches, of the Moravians, and of the Episcopal 
Methodists, is equivalent to a general superintendency, and 
claims no divine right or essential distinction of function from 
the presbyterate. 

VIII. The Presbyterian Polity dates from Calvin, and was 
more fully developed in the Reformed Churches of France, 
Holland and Scotland. It is based upon the equality of minis- 
ters or presbyter-bishops under the sole headship of Christ, and 
the co-operation of the laity. It distinguishes several judica- 
tories, congregational, presbyterial, and synodical. The Church 
Session consists of the pastor and ruling elders of a particular 
congregation, and attends to the maintenance of the local gov- 
ernment. The Presbytery consists of all the ministers and one 
ruling elder from each congregation within a certain district, and 
exercises jurisdiction over that district. The Synod consists of 
ministers and lay delegates from the Presbyteries. The General 
Assembly is the highest judicatory in all matters of doctrine, 
worship and discipline, but does not claim infallibility for any 
of its decisions, and must submit all constitutional changes to 
the Presbyteries for ratification. 

IX. The Lutheran Church in the United States unites the 
Presbyterian and Synodical government with Congregational 
independency ; but some divines are in favor of restoring the 
episcopal superintendency, after the model of Sweden. 

X. Congregational or Independent Polity lodges the 
government of the Church in each congregation or society of 
believers, who voluntarily, by mutual agreement and by cove- 
nant with God, confederate or unite for purposes of worship 
and Christian activity. It maintains two offices, that of bishop 
or pastor, who guides the Church by instruction and counsel, 
and that of deacons or helpers, who have charge of the secular- 
ities of the congregation and the relief of the poor. The 
churches and ministers associate in councils, conferences, asso- 
ciations and consociations, which have moral but not legislative 
authority. This form of Church government dates from the 
reign of Elizabeth and is adopted by the Independents of Eng- 
land, the Congregationalists of America, the Baptists, the 
Quakers, a branch of the Methodists, the Disciples of Christ, 
the Unitarians, and the Universalists. 



CHURCH AND STATE. 467 

CHAPTER CCLXIII. 

LITERATURE ON CHURCH POLITY. 

1. On the apostolic Church government and the origin of episcopacy, 
see Rothe (1837), Zahn, Lightfoot, Ritschl, Hatch, Kenan, Harnack, 
Jacob, and Gore. 

2. Older works by Richard Hooker (Ecclesiastical Polity, 1594), Joseph 
Bingham (Antiquities of the Christian Church, 1710 sqq.), etc. See lists in 
Schaff, Church History, vol. i., pp. 481-484. 

3. Arthur P. Stanley : Christian Institutions (London and New York, 
1881). 

Edwin Hatch : The Growth of Church Institutions (London and New 
York, 1881 ; 2d ed. 1888). 

4. Denominational Church Manuals : Episcopalian by Francis Vinton 
(New York, 1870) ; Presbyterian by Samuel Miller, Joel Parker, T. 
Ralston Smith, J. A. Hodge ; Methodist by Robert Emory (New York, 
1864), W. Pierce (London, 1873) ; Congregational by H. M. Dexter (Bos- 
ton, 1865, 5th ed. 1879), and J. E. Roy (Chicago, 1869, and often since) ; 
Baptist by Francis Wayland (New York, 1857), 

CHAPTER CCLXIV. 

CHURCH AND STATE. 

The relation of Church and State belongs to the outward 
condition of the Church in this world, and materially affects 
the interests of both. It is a part of the theory of Church 
Polity. 

According to the Bible, the two powers, like the family from 
which they spring, are divinely appointed, the Church for the 
spiritual welfare, the State for the temporal welfare — that is, 
for the protection of life and property and all the natural rights 
of man. Hence the civil magistrate, as well as the clergyman, 
is a servant of G-od (Rom. 13 : 1-4). The State belongs to the 
kingdom of nature ; the Church, to the kingdom of grace ; but 
nature prepares for grace, and both work together for the same 
end. The law is the weapon of the one ; the gospel, the weapon 
of the other. Offenses against the State deserve temporal pun- 
ishment ; offenses against the Church deserve spiritual punish- 
ment (admonition, suspension, excommunication). 

Christ draws a clear line of distinction between the two 
powers, and requires us to render to God and to Caesar what is 



468 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

due to each. But in history, the two have often been con- 
founded or brought into hostile collision. A faithful observ- 
ance of Christ's wise words in answer to the Pharisees on the 
question of tribute (Matt. 22 : 21) would have prevented relig- 
ious wars and saved rivers of blood. 

There are four different relations which have been heretofore 
developed : 

I. The State hostile to the Church. In the Roman Empire 
during the first three centuries. The age of persecution. But 
while the Church was oppressed from without by the heathen 
government, she was independent within in building up her 
creed and polity. 

II. The State ruling over the Church. Caesaropapism, Eras- 
tianism. The old Byzantine, and the modern Russian, Empire, 
where the Czar is pope ; also the national Protestant Churches 
of Europe, where the secular ruler is the highest ecclesiastical 
authority ("summus episcopus" in Germany ; "supreme gov- 
ernor" in England). 

III. The Church ruling the State. The hierarchy, copied 
from the Old Testament theocracy. It was (and is still) the 
theory of the Roman Catholic Church, and led to the conflicts 
between the pope and the emperor and kings. It was most 
fully carried out in the States of the Church (KircJienstaat), 
with Rome as the capital and the pope as the temporal and 
spiritual sovereign ; but it came to an end in 1870, when Rome 
was made the capital of the united kingdom of Italy, and the 
pope was confined to the possession of the Vatican, though 
with undiminished spiritual power. 

IV. Independence of Church and State on a footing of 
friendly recognition. This is the condition in the United 
States, where all Christian Churches and sects are on the same 
footing before the law, equally protected by the law, but 
equally independent of State control in the management of 
their affairs, and are thrown upon the voluntary principle and the 
duty and privilege of self-support and self-government. This 
separation secures entire religious freedom and is most favor- 
able for the development of the energies of the Church. It is 
the best, though not the final, status.* 

* Cardinal Gibbons, at a banquet of the Catholic Club in Philadelphia, 
Feb. 6, 1893, made the following sensible speech in response to the toast 
" Church and State " : 

" I am firmly persuaded, both by study and observation, that the Church 



TOLERATION AND LIBERTY. 469 

V. The ultimate relation of Church and State will be the 
perfect kingdom of God on the new earth, or a universal Chris- 
tocracy of righteousness and peace. 

Literature. 

Emil Friedberg : Die Grenzen zwischen Staat und Kirche und die Garan- 
tien gegen dereri Verletzung (Tubingen, 1872). 

Marco Minghetti : Stato e cliiesa (Milan, 2d ed. 1878 ; German trans- 
lation by the Empress Frederick, Staat und Kirche, Gotha, 1881). Defends 
Cavour's principle of Veglise libre dans Vetat libre. 

Attilio Brunialti : Biblioteca di Scienze Politiclie (Torino, 1892, vol. 
viii. ) . The eighth volume contains a number of essays by various authors 
in different countries on Church and State. 

Philip Schaff : Church and State in the United States ; or, TJie American 
Idea of Religious Liberty and its Practical Effects. With Official Documents 
(New York, 1888). Translated into Italian by Brunialti, 1892. 

A. Taylor Innes : Church and State : A Historical Handbook (Edinburgh 
and New York, 1893). 

On the relation of Protestantism to religious liberty, compare Schaff's 
Church History, vol. vi., pp. 50-86; and vol. vii., pp. 693-712. 

CHAPTER CCLXY. 

TOLERATION AND LIBERTY. 

The relation of Church and State is closely connected with 
religious liberty. The union of the spiritual and secular power 
is always more or less a restraint on liberty, and in its extreme 
form leads to persecution by fire and sword; while the peace- 
ful separation of the two allows the full exercise of liberty 
within the limits of public order and peace. 

State-churchism may be, and has in modern times become, 

is more sturdy in her growth, and is more prosperous in her career, when 
she is free to pursue her divine mission without any interference on the 
part of the State. Here, thank God, the Church is free and therefore she 
is prosperous. Here the Church and the State run in parallel lines, each 
assisting the other, and neither of them unwarrantably intruding on the 
domain of the other. Here the Constitution holds over the Church its 
protecting arm without interfering in ecclesiastical affairs. 

"We have no State religion or official Church in the United States. 
But it would be a great mistake to draw as an inference from this fact that 
therefore our Government is anti-Christian or anti-religious. I venture to 
say, on the contrary, that there is no commonwealth under the sun more 
strongly permeated by Christian and religious principles than the Govern- 
ment of the United States. 

"For my part, I believe the relations between the Church and State 
are as close and cordial as we should desire. All we ask is a fair field and 
no special favor. I do not wish to see the day when the State will be 
called on to build our churches and subsidize our clergy. For it were to 



470 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

tolerant towards dissenting sects, bnt to the same extent has 
the bond of union been relaxed. Toleration may proceed from 
necessity, or from prudence, or from indifference, or from lib- 
erality and enlarged views of truth and right.* 

But there is a wide difference between toleration and liberty. 
Toleration is the gift of man ; liberty is the gift of God. The 
one is a concession and an expedient ; the other a right and a 
principle. Toleration implies, more or less, censure and disap- 
proval ; it may be extended or withdrawn by the power which 
grants it. The most despotic governments tolerate or endure 
what they dislike but cannot prevent. Russia and Turkey are 
tolerant towards subjects too numerous or too useful to be killed 
off or to be exiled, but they strietty forbid propagandism and 
punish apostates from the State religion with exile and death. 
In a free country, no self-respecting man asks to be tolerated 
for his religious opinions or sacred convictions. " Toleration is 
first sought and granted as a favor, then demanded and con- 
ceded as a right, and at last spurned as an insult." 

Liberty is the greatest gift of God to man.f It is a natural, 
fundamental and inalienable right of every man created in the 
image of God. The most precious of all liberties is religious 
liberty. It is rooted in the sacredness of conscience, which is 
the voice of God in man, and above the reach and control of 
human authority. It is a law above all human laws that " we 
ought to obey God rather than man." Liberty of conscience re- 
quires liberty of worship. Despots allow the one because they 
cannot help it, but deny the other. Beligion in its nature is 
voluntary, and ceases to be religion in proportion as it is forced. 
God desires free worshipers and hates hypocrites. 

The principle of religious liberty is proclaimed in the New 

be feared that, as soon as the Government began to support the Church, 
it would dictate to us what doctrines we ought to preach. And in propor- 
tion as State patronage would increase, the devotion and patronage of the 
faithful would wax cold. If it is a great wrong to muzzle the press, it 
would be a great wrong to muzzle the pulpit." 

But the same Cardinal defends the restoration of the temporal power of 
the pope. The Roman Catholics demand and enjoy all the liberty they can 
get in Protestant countries, on Protestant principles, but they deny liberty 
to Protestants in Roman Catholic countries, on Roman Catholic principles. 

* In the last sense, toleration or tolerance, as freedom from bigotry and 
forbearance towards the dissenting opinions of others, may be a positive 
virtue. 

t So says even Pope Leo XIII. in his Encyclical, Libertas prcestantis- 
simum naturce donum, issued June 20, 1888. 



TOLERATION AND LIBERTY. 471 

Testament, and was defended by the ante-Nicene Fathers, such 
as Justin Martyr, Tertullian and Laetantius, against heathen 
persecution, and by the Nicene Fathers, as Athanasius and 
Hilary, during the Arian persecution. It was acknowledged in 
the Toleration Edict of Constantine (313), but soon forgotten 
by his successors, the Christian emperors, who persecuted the 
heathen religion and Christian heretics and schismatics, as then 
heathen predecessors had persecuted the Christian religion. 
The Catholic Church, although holding the principle, "Ecclesia 
non sitit sanguinem," admitted and defended the right and duty 
of the civil power to punish heresy, as a crime and murder of 
the soul, with fire and sword. 

The greatest divines, under the lead of Augustin and Thon as 
Aquinas, sanctioned the principle of ^persecution which con- 
demned thousands of heretics to a cruel death, and made the 
annals of the Spanish Inquisition the most infamous in the 
history of cruelty. 

The Reformation was the first breach in the external unity 
and exclusiveness of the Roman Church. But the reign of in- 
tolerance continued for a long time even among Protestants. 
Romanism and Protestantism fought for supremacy and ex- 
cluded each other from their respective territories ; and both 
persecuted heretics and dissenters, like Anabaptists and Unita- 
rians. The burning of Servetus under the eye of Calvin was 
approved as a righteous act of the Christian magistrate by all 
the surviving reformers, even the gentle Melanchthon. The 
Lutherans and Episcopalians practiced intolerance and exclu- 
sion against all dissenters, Protestant as well as Catholic, as far 
as they had the power. 

The principle of parity for Catholics and Protestants in one 
country and under the same civil government was first recog- 
nized in Switzerland (1531), and, after the terrible Thirty Years' 
War, in Germany by the Westphalia Treaty (1648), but confined 
to three parties (Romanists, Lutherans, and German Reformed). 
In France Henry IV. secured a legal status to the Huguenots, his 
former associates, by the famous Edict of Nantes (1598) ; but it 
was revoked by his grandson, Louis XIV., in 1685, who aimed at 
the complete annihilation of the Reformed Church. The gov- 
ernment of Holland condemned and expelled the Arminians, at 
the Synod of Dort (1619), but recalled them after the death of 
Prince Maurice of Nassau (1625), and has since that time been 



472 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

a protector of religious liberty. In England, the conflict be- 
tween prelacy and puritanism for exclusive dominion lasted till 
the fall of the Stuarts and the peaceful revolution of 1688, when 
William of Orange was called to the throne, and issued the Act 
of Toleration, which secured to orthodox Protestant dissenters, 
under certain restrictions, a legal existence and the right of pub- 
lic worship and self-government. The same right, with full civil 
privileges, was in the nineteenth century extended to Unitarians 
and Roman Catholics. The United States of America went a 
step further in the federal constitution of 1787 by abolishing 
" religious tests as a qualification to any office or public trust," 
and in the first amendment to the constitution (1789), by for- 
bidding Congress " to make any law respecting an establish- 
ment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." 

This principle of religious freedom and separation of Church 
and State is slowly, but irresistibly, making progress in Europe, 
and is becoming more and more an essential part of modern 
civilization. It develops the power of self-government which 
is inherent in the Christian Church. It favors, indeed, the mul- 
tiplication of sects j but honest division is preferable to an en- 
forced uniformity which breeds hypocrisy and infidelity. The 
principle of liberty secures also the possibility of a reunion of 
Christendom on the solid basis of freedom and voluntary con- 
sent. 

Literature. 

Compare the literature in the preceding chapter. 

Alex. Kud. Vinet (Professor of Theology in Lausanne, the modern 
Calvin, and the pioneer of the doctrine of religious liberty and the separa- 
tion of Church and State as a guarantee for it ; b. 1797, d. 1847) : De la 
liberte des cidtes (1826) ; and Sur la manifestation des convictions religieuses 
et sur la separation de Veglise et de Vetat (Paris, 1842). 

Philip Schaff : The Progress of Religious Freedom as shown in the His- 
tory of Toleration Acts (New York, 1889, pp. 126). With the texts of the 
principal toleration Acts. 

CHAPTER CCLXYI. 

HOMILETIC OR KERYCTIC. 

Homiletic is derived from djucVia, intercourse, communion ; instruction, 
lecture (from ojuoq, joint, common, or 6/j.ov, together, and Vkq or elhj, a crowd, 
a band). A homily designates usually only one kind of sermon, viz., a 
familiar discourse on a Scripture text, as distinct from an elaborate artistic 
oration (hoyoq) on a theme. 



HOMILETIC OR KERYCTIC. 473 

Keryctic is from Kypvy/ua, nrjpvoou, the Scripture terms for proclaiming 
the gospel as a herald of God or Christ (Krjpv%, prceco), Matt. 11 : 1 ; 12 : 41 ; 
Mark 1 : 38 ; Luke 11 : 32 ; Rom. 10 : 15 ; 1 Cor. 1 : 21 ; Titus 1 : 3 ; 2 Tim. 
4 : 17 ; 1 Pet. 3 : 19 ; etc. 

Homiletic is the theory of pulpit eloquence, or of preaching. 
It is rhetoric applied to the pulpit, or sacred rhetoric as distin- 
guished from general rhetoric. It deals with the composition 
and delivery of sermons. The general laws of speech and 
delivery are the same, and have their origin in the constitution 
of our intellectual and moral nature, but they are modified by 
the subject and purpose. 

Eloquence is the art of persuasion and conviction by means 
of speech. It is practical in its aim. Science acts upon the 
intellect, art upon the imagination, eloquence upon the will. 
Eloquence uses argument, illustration and appeal, with a view 
to influence the mind and produce action. It is logic set on 
fire. Hence the secret of its power lies in the intense earnest- 
ness of conviction, in the magnetism and electricity, of the 
speaker. Action, action, action is the first and last virtue of 
eloquence. Only a heart full of fire can kindle fire. 

Of all kinds of eloquence, religious eloquence is the highest, 
both for its matter and aim. Preaching is a divinely appointed 
means of persuading, instructing, converting and saving men. 
A good and effective sermon is a communication of spiritual 
lif e. It is the testimony of truth in the name and by the au- 
thority of God. It goes to the quick of the conscience and to 
the mysterious point where finite man is connected with the 
infinite God. A preacher is a prophet who reveals the secrets 
of God's will and of man's heart. There is no greater work in 
this world than that of the preacher. It was the work of the 
Son of God himself. 

Homiletic must deal first with the matter, and then with the 
manner, of preaching. The matter is taken from the Bible and 
Christian experience ; the manner must adjust itself to the 
general laws of literary composition and effective delivery. 

The word of God is the chief instrumentality for saving 
men. " Sanctify them through thy truth : thy word is truth " 
(John 17 : 17). " Being born again, not of corruptible seed, but 
of incorruptible, by the word of God " (1 Peter 1:23). "Of his 
own will begat he us with the word of truth" (James 1 : 18). 
This Word must be preached and heard. " How shall they 



474 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

hear without a preacher ? And how shall they preach except 
they be sent?" (Rom. 10 : 15.) Conversions by the mere read- 
ing of the Scriptures are very rare exceptions. It is living Chris- 
tianity proclaimed by living preachers that always has been, 
and will be to the end of time, the great missionary agency. 

Preaching has a powerful rival in the daily press, but it keeps 
pace with it, and will continue with increasing power as long 
as men are born in time and for eternity, as long as they marry 
and are given in marriage, as long as they require nourishment 
for their spiritual hunger and encouragement in the struggle 
with temptation and sin, as long as they suffer in body and mind, 
and need comfort and an assured hope of immortality and glory 
in the face of death and the lonely journey to the other world. 



CHAPTER CCLXVIL 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF PREACHING. 

Different wants and circumstances necessitate different kinds 
of preaching. 

1. A plain testimony of divine facts and saving truths, with 
a personal application to the hearers. Such was the mission- 
ary discourse in the apostolic age. Peter's pentecostal sermon, 
simple, devoid of dogma and ornamentation, but earnest, pointed, 
forcible and most effective. 

2. A homily, or expository and hortatory discourse on some 
portion of Scripture. 

3. A regularly constructed oration with introduction, theme, 
parts and peroration, for public worship on the Lord's Day, and 
for special occasions. This is subject to all the rules of rhet- 
oric, but its efficacy depends not so much on the observance of 
these rules as upon the vital truth and the vital force in its ex- 
position and application. 

French rhetoricians make nice distinctions between homilies, 
conferences, discourses, and sermons. 



HOMILETICAL HINTS. 475 

CHAPTER CCLXVIH. 

HOMILETICAL HINTS. 

1. A good sermon grows out of the secret communion of the 
soul with God, the study of the Bible and other good books, 
knowledge of human nature, and living intercourse with the 
people. 

2. Prepare your sermon on your knees as well as at your 
study-desk, and reproduce it in the pulpit under the fresh in- 
spiration of the audience. 

3. Write out your sermons in full, or at least the leading 
thoughts. The Lord always rewards industry and faithfulness, 
but idleness and neglect have no promise. 

4. A natural, clear, logical arrangement is half the sermon. 

5. Commit the thought, if not the words, to memory, so as 
to be master of the manuscript, whether you read it or not. 

6. The Bible supplies suitable themes and texts for all occa- 
sions. Like a laden tree, the more it is shaken the more abun- 
dant the fall of fruit. 

7. The pulpit style is popular, direct, forcible and practical ; 
not vulgar or superficial, but noble, chaste, dignified, and mod- 
eled after the discourses and parables of Christ. 

8. Avoid all display of learning, and make your reading* 
directly subservient to the practical aim. Think not of the 
few scholars and critics, but of the common people hungry for 
spiritual nourishment. 

9. Aim at the conversion of sinners and the edification of 
believers. 

10. Preach first to yourself before you preach to others, and 
your sermons will have double weight w r ith your hearers. 

11. Avoid personalities in the pulpit, and attacks on infidels, 
who are seldom present. 

12. Make no apologies for Christianity, but take for granted 
that it is the truth and the power unto salvation. Suggest no 
doubts which might disturb devotion. 

13. Preach Christ and his gospel, not dogma and theology. 

14. Preach from the heart to the heart. 

" Nothing which does not burn itself can kindle a flame in 
anything else." (Gregory I.) 



476 THEOLOGICAL PROPAEDEUTIC. 

15. Address your hearers as if it were the last occasion for 
you and them. 

"I preached as never sure to preach again, 
And as a dying man to dying men." — Eichard Baxter. 

16. Honesty and earnestness rather than genius and elo- 
quence are the secret of success in the pulpit. 

17. Learn from all good preachers, but do not imitate any • 
be yourself, and work out your own individuality. 

18. Aim to please God, and not men. 

19. Be brief, and stop when the interest is at its height. The 
Sermon on the Mount, the parables, and Peter's pentecostal 
sermon were short. Brevity is the soul of a good speech as 
well as of wit. Long sermons must be justified by special 
occasions. 

20. "Get up freshly; 

Open your mouth widely ; 
Be done quickly.' 7 * 

21. " Begin low : 

Proceed slow : 
Aim higher,— 
Take fire ; 

When most impressed 
Be self-possessed." 

22. After the sermon ask no one for his opinion j shut your 
ears against praise, but be open to censure from friend or foe ; 
keep the blame to yourself, and give the glory to God. 

23. Preachers whose sermons are worth studying : Chrysos- 
tom, Augustin. — -St. Bernard. — Baxter, Jeremy Taylor, South, 
John Wesley, Robert Hall, Chalmers, Guthrie, P. W. Robert- 
son, J. H. Newman, Liddon, Spurgeon, Alex. McLaren. — E. D. 
Griffin, John M. Mason, H. Bushnell, H. W. Beecher, R. D. 
Hitchcock, Phillips Brooks. — F. W. Krummacher, Theremin, 
Tholuck, Ahlfeld, Kogel, Gerok. — Bossuet, Massillon, Saurin, 
Adolphe Monod, Bersier. v 



" Tritt frisch auf; 
MacWs Maul auf ; 
Eor laid auf." — Luther, 



HISTORY OF THE PULPIT TO THE REFORMATION. 477 

CHAPTER CCLXIX. 

HISTORY OF THE PULPIT TO THE TDIE OF THE REFORMATION. 

Paxiel : Geschichte der christlichen Beredtsamkeit (1839, only till Chrysos- 
tom and Augustin). — Hoppix : Homiletics (1881), pp. 13-212. — Broadus : 
History of Preaching (1876). — Christlieb : Geschichte der Predigt (1888), 
in Herzog.- vol. xviii., pp. 166-653 (disproportionately long for an ency- 
clopaedia, "but very valuable). — For the French pulpit: Yixet : Histoire de 
la jyredication parmi les Beformes de France an xvii. siecle (1860) ; Yixcext : 
Histoire de la predication jyrotestante de langue frangaise an xix. siecle (1871) ; 
A Hurel : Les orateurs sacre a la cour de Louis XIV. (Paris, 1873, 2 vols.). 
— For the English pulpit : Kempe : Hie Classic Preachers of the English 
Church (1878, 2 vols.). — For American preachers : Sprague : Annals of the 
American Pulpit (New York, 1866-69, 9 vols. ; a 10th vol. remains unpub- 
lished). 

The history of preaching runs parallel with the history of 
Christian worship and Christian life. Every age and every 
Christian nation has its own style of preaching. Chief among 
them are the Greek, Roman, French, German, English, Scotch. 
and American styles. Italy and Spain have few great preachers. 

I. Apostolic preaching. Its theme : Christ the Messiah and 
Saviour from sin and death, crucified, raised up. and ever- 
living. The gift of teaching (SiSaoxaXia) and the gift of 
prophesying (-po'fr^sia). The extraordinary gift of tongues 
(fXcrtGooXaXta) on the day of Pentecost and in the church of 
Corinth was an act of worship addressed to God rather than to 
the people* 

The birthday of the Church was also the birthday of the 
Christian sermon under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. 

The sermons of Peter and Paul, in the Acts, are models for 
simplicity, spiritual force and wise adaptation to circumstances. 
Peter, addressing Jews, showed the ful fi ll m ent of prophecy in 
which they believed, and his pentecostal sermon resulted in the 
conversion of three thousand souls. Stephen's apology be- 
fore the Sanhedrin is a good specimen of an historical sermon 
with a practical application. Paul, addressing the Greeks on 
the Areopagus, appealed to the religious consciousness and 
took his text from a heathen poet. He required of every pres- 

* See Sehaff, Church History, vol. i., pp. 230-213 and 436-439. 



478 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

byter or bishop that he should be apt to teach (StSaxuxdc). 
But preaching was not confined to ordained ministers. Every 
disciple who had the gift of speech was an evangelist and told 
the story of Jesus as the mariner tells of his rescue from ship- 
wreck, and the soldier of his escape from death on the battle- 
field. 

II. The ante-Nicene age. The oldest extant homily after the 
apostolic age is the so-called Second Epistle of Clement of 
Rome, from the middle of the second century, which has been 
recently recovered in full (1875). It is far inferior to the apos- 
tolic sermons and has no literary value, but is inspired by 
moral earnestness and strong faith. The unknown author, prob- 
ably a Roman Christian, addressed the hearers as " brothers and 
sisters," and closes with this doxolo gy : " To the only God in- 
visible, the Father of truth, who sent forth unto us the Saviour 
and Prince of immortality, through whom also He made mani- 
fest unto us the truth and the heavenly life, to Him be the 
glory forever and ever. Amen." 

Origen, the father of exegesis, is also the father of the bib- 
lical homily, as a running exposition and application of a 
Scripture text. He shows an extraordinary familiarity with 
the Bible, and introduced the ingenious but arbitrary method 
of allegorizing. He was invited, even before his ordination, by 
friendly bishops in Jerusalem and Csesarea " to expound the 
sacred Scriptures publicly in the church," but his enemy, Bishop 
Alexander of Alexandria, disapproved of it ; and preaching was 
afterwards forbidden to the laity and regarded as an exclusive 
privilege of the clergy, especially of the bishop. Even the 
deacons lost the right of preaching in the course of the third 
century. 

From Justin Martyr we learn that the leading officer of the 
congregation read every Sunday a portion of the apostolic and 
prophetic writings and added in a free speech an exhortation 
and practical conclusion. Tertullian's moral essays on Prayer, 
Penitence, Patience, etc., closely resemble sermons, and are orig- 
inal, fresh, forcible and sententious, but often obscure. Cyprian 
was an elegant and popular preacher, but his sermons are lost. 

III. The Greek Pulpit. The regular sermon as a work of rhe- 
torical art dates from the Nicene age, and was modeled after the 
heathen orators, from Demosthenes down to Libanius. Basil 
the Great, bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia (d. 379), Gregory 



HISTORY OF THE PULPIT TO THE REFORMATION. 479 

Nazianzen (d. 390), Gregory of Nyssa (d. 394), John Chrysos- 
tom (d. 407). Add Ephraem (d. 378), the most fertile theolog- 
ical author, poet and preacher of the Syrian Church. The 
sermons of this period are more eloquent, theological and 
polemical than those of the ante-Nicene age, and partake of the 
virtues and vices of the heathen rhetoric in its declining stage. 
They abound in extravagant eulogies of martyrs and saints and 
the ascetic life. 

John of the Golden Mouth (Chrysostomos), as posterity called 
him, is by far the greatest orator of the Greek Church, and the 
model of a fearless court preacher. He was a pupil of Libanius, 
but took Paul for his model. The sermons which he preached 
as presbyter at Antioch and as bishop at Constantinople are 
expository homilies on Genesis, the Psalms, the Gospels of 
Matthew and John, the Acts, and the Epistles of Paul. He de- 
livered also discourses on separate texts of Scripture, on Church 
festivals, eulogies of apostles and martyrs, and twenty-one ora- 
tions on the statues of the Emperor Theodosius and Flacilla 
his wife (which in a popular revolt against the excess of taxa- 
tion were thrown down and dragged through the streets of 
Antioch so as to enrage the emperor and endanger the destruc- 
tion of the city). Chrysostom was not free from the defects of 
the artificial rhetoric of Libanius, and indulges in fulsome glo- 
rification of dead martyrs and living men ; but he was mighty 
in the Scriptures, intensely in earnest, fruitful in thought, illus- 
tration and application, and fearless in rebuking vice in high 
and low places. He held his hearers spellbound to the close. 
They manifested their admiration sometimes by noisy applause, 
as in a theater, and when he protested against it they applauded 
all the more his eloquent rebuke. He was a martyr of the pul- 
pit. When Eudoxia, the ambitious, intriguing and vicious 
empress, ordered the erection of her own statue in silver for 
public adoration, Chrysostom publicly rebuked the act on the 
commemoration day of John the Baptist, and let the imprudent 
words escape his lips : "Again Herodias is raging ! Again she 
is dancing ! Again she demands the head of John on a plat- 
ter ! " He was sent into exile, and died, as he had lived, giving 
" glory to God for all things." Dante assigns to him a place in 
Paradise at the side of Nathan the prophet, who roused the 
conscience of David to a sense of his great sin, but he did it by 
indirect preaching through a parable. 



480 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

IV. The Latin Pulpit. Hilary (d. 366), Ambrose (d. 397), 
Augustin (d. 430), Peter Chrysologus (d. 450), Maxim us of Turin 
(d. 465), Pope Leo I. (d. 461), and Gregory I. (d. 604). Augus- 
tin, who was helped in his conversion by the sermons of 
Ambrose and the singing of hymns, preached often daily, 
especially during Lent, without much preparation but never 
without prayer, on the Psalms, on the Gospel of John, on sacred 
seasons, and on different texts of the Old and New Testaments, 
from a profound knowledge of the Bible, and an equally pro- 
found experience of sin and grace. 

Pope Leo is the first Roman bishop whose Latin sermons 
(ninety-eight in number) have come down to us. They are 
inferior to Augustin's homilies in originality and depth, but 
surpass them in elegance of diction. He celebrated annually 
his elevation to the chair of Peter by a memorial sermon in the 
full consciousness of the dignity and importance of his office. 

Gregory I. followed Augustin, but moderated his theology 
in a semi-Pelagianizing spirit. His homilies on the Gospels, 
twenty-two on Ezekiel, and his allegorical, practical commen- 
tary on Job, together with his Pastoral Theology, were much 
used in the Middle Ages. 

V. The Pulpit of the Middle Ages. This is comparatively 
meager, as the Church was engaged chiefly in the conversion 
of the barbarians, who had to be treated like children. Hence 
the sermons or homilies were mostly brief missionary addresses, 
or expositions of the Apostles' Creed, the Lord's Prayer and the 
Ten Commandments. Alcuin and Paulus Diaconus and others, 
by direction of Charles the Great, made collections of sermons 
(Homilaria) from Ambrose, Augustin, Leo, Gregory and others 
for priests, very few of whom were capable of preparing orig- 
inal sermons* 

The rarer the preachers, even among bishops, the greater was 
their power. Pope Urban II. roused the chivalry of Europe to 
the first crusade at the Council of Clermont (1095) by a sermon, 
after which the crowd unanimously broke out in the cry : " God 
wills it ! God wills it ! " 

St. Bernard of Clairvaux (d. 1153) was the most eloquent 
and effective preacher of the Middle Ages. He preached to 
monks in the convent, to bishops and cardinals in the cathedral, 

* Such sermons on the pericopes or Scripture lessons were ve&dpost ilia 
verba sacrw scripture, and hence called Postilla. 



HISTORY OF THE PULPIT TO THE REFORMATION. 481 

to miscellaneous assemblies in the open air. We have nearly 
three hundred and fifty imperfect reports of his extemporaneous 
Latin discourses. His eighty-six sermons on the Song of Solo- 
mon, which to his mystic mind had peculiar attraction, read 
into this poem of love, by allegorical interpretation, the mys- 
teries of Christian experience. The secret of his power lay in 
his holy person ah ty, his pathos and solemnity, and the intensity 
of his conviction of the truth of the gospel. This humble monk 
with delicate and emaciated but graceful frame, pale face, fiery 
eyes, melodious voice, vivacious gestures, glowing love to God 
and man, exerted an irresistible influence over his hearers. 
Even the Germans, who could not understand his Latin or 
Romance language, felt the heavenly impulses vibrating on his 
lips. He spared neither emperor nor pope. He stirred up the 
half of Europe to the second crusade, which, however, turned 
out a disastrous failure which hastened his death. He glorified 
monasticism as the perfection of Christian life, mysticism as the 
true theology, the Virgin Mary as the mother of grace (though 
he denied the immaculate conception). He found Christ every- 
where in the Old Testament as well as the New, and expressed 
his love for him in his passion hymns, and in his u Jesu, dulcis 
memoria" the sweetest hymn of Latin poetry, which has been 
reproduced again and again in different languages. Dante, 
in his description of the heavenly Paradise, represents Ber- 
nard as a fatherly old man, clothed in light, sent by Bea- 
trice to explain to him the Rose of the Blessed and to lead him 
to the beatific vision — the vision of the Holy Trinity, with 
which the Divina Commedia closes. For that consummation 
of bliss, Bernard prepares the poet by a fervent prayer to 
the " Virgin Mother, the daughter of her Son." Luther found 
in Bernard his favorite doctrine of justification by faith, 
and declared him the best preacher among the Doctors of the 
Church. 

The most eccentric and naive preacher of the Middle Ages 
was St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1226), a seraphic stranger in 
this world who was intoxicated with the love of God and man, 
and died of the wounds of Christ. He preached to the poor 
and the rich, before kings and popes, before the Sultan of Egypt 
at the head of the Mohammedan army, and sent forth his com- 
panions, two by two, in rough clothing, barefoot, without money, 
as messengers of the gospel. He loved all the creatures of 



482 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

God, and preached even to the sun and the moon, to birds and 
fishes, as his brothers and sisters. He was the first to use the 
common Italian speech, instead of the Latin, for sermons and 
religious poetry. 

His pupil, St. Anthony of Padua (1195-1231), preached with 
equal success, converted thousands, and is said to have been 
listened to attentively by fishes, as a Christian Orpheus. 

The mendicant orders of the Franciscans (Fratres Minores) 
and the Dominicans (Fratres Prcedicatores), in the thirteenth 
century, as also the order of the Augustinians, were founded 
especially for preaching the gospel to the neglected people in 
their popular tongue, and to counteract the heresies which had 
spread in Italy and France. The greatest popular preacher of 
the Franciscans was Berth old of Ratisbon (d. 1272), who trav- 
eled on foot as an evangelist in southern Germany, Switzer- 
land and Austria, and addressed at times as many as 60,000 
to 100,000 hearers in the open air. The Spanish Dominican, 
Yincentius Ferrer (1357-1419), preached often twice a day to 
great crowds in Spain, Italy and France, with marvelous 
success. 

VI. The reformers before the Reformation preached in the 
vernacular tongues : Wiclif in English, Hus in Bohemian 
(Czech), Tauler in German, Savonarola in Italian. 

Wiclif (d. 1384), the translator of the Bible and founder of 
English prose, opposed the biblical to the scholastic style of 
preaching, attacked popery and monkery, and established a so- 
ciety of poor traveling preachers, called Lollards, to counteract 
the mendicant friars. He died in peace, but his bones were 
dug up and burnt to ashes by order of the orthodox reforma- 
tory Council of Constance. 

Hus accepted the doctrines of Wiclif and preached against 
the corruptions of the Church and the clergy, for which he was 
condemned to the stake by the Council of Constance (1415). 
His pupil, Jerome of Prague, shared the same fate (1416). 

John Tauler (d. 1361) was the most edifying and effective of 
the mystic preachers of the Middle Ages, and was highly es- 
teemed by Luther. His theme was the imitation of the lowly 
and humble life of Jesus. 

Savonarola, an ascetic monk of extraordinary eloquence, 
aimed at a moral reform, in opposition to the heathen Renais- 
sance of the Medici, without attacking the doctrines of the 



THE PROTESTANT PULPIT ON THE CONTINENT. 483 

Roman Church. By his flaming sermons at San Marco he 
shook the whole republic of Florence, and converted it into a 
short-lived republic of Christ ; but he fell a victim to the wicked 
Pope Alexander VI. and was burnt to death (1498). 



CHAPTER CCLXX. 

THE PROTESTANT PULPIT ON THE CONTINENT. 

The Reformation placed the pulpit above the altar, and gave 
rise to an unbroken and ever swelling stream of sacred elo- 
quence which it would require volumes to describe, from Luther 
and Zwingli, Calvin and Knox, down to Monod and Bersier, 
Spurgeon and Liddon, Beecher and Brooks. The Catholic 
pulpit also received a new impulse from the Reformation, 
especially in Germany and France. We can only sketch the 
most prominent names. 

I. The Reformers were preachers as well as scholars and 
writers, and their sermons were reforming agencies. 

Luther (1483-1546), the creator of the modern German book 
language and German translator of the Bible, is also the 
founder of modern German pulpit eloquence. Many of his 
sermons, like his tracts, were deeds and bugle sounds in the 
battle with the pope and the devil ; others are simple exposi- 
tions of the Gospels and Epistles for the common people, who 
heard him gladly. Their chief theme is Christ as the only and 
sufficient Saviour, to be apprehended by a living faith which 
justifies, gives peace to the conscience, and overcomes the world. 
He had the rare gift of expressing deep thought in popular 
language, and of striking the nail on the head. He departed 
more and more from the domination of the allegorizing method 
which had prevailed since the days of Origen. His Kirchen- 
postille (1522, 1525) is still much read in Germany. 

Melanchthon was not an ordained minister, but preached to 
students in the lecture-room and in his house in Latin (Postilla, 
1549), and wrote three works on rhetoric (1519, 1535, and 1561). 

Zwingli had acquired, before he became a reformer, a great 
reputation as preacher in Glarus and Einsiedeln, and was ap- 
pointed papal chaplain, 1518. His sermons at the great Min- 
ster in Zurich, from 1519 to his death, in 1531, were biblical, 



484 THEOLOGICAL PROPAEDEUTIC. 

plain, solid, sober, practical, impressive, more ethical than 
doctrinal. His object was "to preach Christ from the foun- 
tain," and "to insert the pure Christ into the hearts of the 
people." His method was to explain entire books, beginning 
with the Gospel of Matthew, so as to give his congregation a 
connected and complete idea of the life of Christ and the way 
of salvation. The people said, " Snch preaching was never 
heard before," and, " This is a genuine preacher of the truth, 
a Moses, who will deliver the people from bondage." At Mar- 
burg he preached before a learned audience of Lutherans who 
could not understand his Swiss dialect a Latin sermon on Provi- 
dence which he elaborated into a theological essay. Zwingli 
was also the model of a Swiss pastor and patriot, frank, manly, 
cheerful, kind and hospitable, took great interest in the edu- 
cation of young men and in all the affairs of the Swiss repub- 
lic, and aimed at a political and moral as well as a religious 
reformation of his fatherland. His freedom in the choice of 
texts was followed in the Reformed Churches, while Luther 
adhered to the traditional pericopes, or prescribed Scripture 
lessons. 

His fellow-reformers in German Switzerland, Leo Judge and 
Bullinger in Zurich, (Ecolampadius in Basel, Haller in Bern, 
Blaurer in Constance, Commander in Coire, were likewise use- 
ful, popular preachers. 

The Reformers of French Switzerland were the first distin- 
guished preachers in the French language. Viret was the most 
persuasive, Farel the most fiery, Calvin the most instructive 
among them. Amidst the incredible labors of Calvin in Geneva 
were his almost daily lectures and sermons. "During the 
week," says Beza, "he preached every alternate and lectured 
every third day." His sermons cannot be called popular, but 
they were thoughtful and didactic, and reveal his unsurpassed 
familiarity with the Bible. His friend and successor, Beza, 
a scholar of classical culture and poetic talent, was likewise an 
indefatigable preacher, but few of his sermons have been pub- 
lished. 

Latimer was the principal preacher among the three English 
Reformers and martyrs, and kindled at the stake in Oxford, 
1555, "with God's help, a torch in England which shall never 
be extinguished." Cranmer prepared, with Ridley and Lati- 



THE PROTESTANT PULPIT ON THE CONTINENT. 485 

mer, the first Book of Homilies, 1547, to which Parker and 
Jewell added a second in 1563, to be read in the churches as 
substitutes for original sermons ; but Cranmer's chief merit in 
the history of worship is the Anglican liturgy, which next to 
the Bible is still the richest feeder of devotion in Episcopal 
churches. 

John Knox, the Reformer of Scotland, " who never feared the 
face of man," preached with such vehemence and force that he 
seemed " likely to ding the pulpit in blads [to beat it in pieces], 
and to flie out of it." The English ambassador wrote to Lord 
Burleigh that " Knox put more life into his hearers in an hour 
than six hundred trumpets." He found a worthy successor in 
the more learned Andrew Melville (d. 1622). 

II. The orthodox Lutheran Pulpit of the seventeenth century 
introduced a dry, scholastic, artificial and polemical style of 
preaching. But it was counteracted by the Pietists and Mys- 
tics, and afterwards succeeded by the insipid moralizing preach- 
ing of the Rationalists. Mosheim (d. 1755), called the "Ger- 
man Bourdaloue," studied French and English models, and 
marks a new epoch in preaching, as well as in Church History. 

III. The French Pulpit reached its golden age in the seven- 
teenth century, both in the Roman and Reformed Churches. 

(1) The restoration of classical eloquence was a part of the 
papal Counter-Reformation, and is represented by Bossuet 
(1627-1704), "the brilliant eagle of Meaux," equally distin- 
guished as historian, controversialist and orator. He followed 
Chrysostom and Augustin, and surpassed them, not in depth 
but in grandeur and splendor of diction, especially in his 
funeral orations, which belong to the immortal masterpieces of 
French style. 

The other luminaries of French pulpit eloquence are Bour- 
daloue (d. 1704), Flechier (d. 1710), and Massillon (d. 1742). 
The last is distinguished for profound knowledge of the human 
heart, moral earnestness and rare boldness, which made even 
Louis XIV. " dissatisfied with himself." Fenelon (d. 1715), the 
gentlest, humblest and most amiable among the bishops of the 
age of Louis XIV., published few sermons, but expressed sound 
principles on preaching in his Dialogues sur V eloquence. 

(2) The Huguenot Pulpit was not far behind the Catholic 
in eloquence, and superior to it in biblical simplicity and depth. 



486 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Its flourishing period extends from the Edict of Nantes (1598) 
to its Revocation (1685). The latter almost annihilated Prot- 
estantism in France, but sent hundreds of its professors to other 
countries to bless them by their industry and piety. 

The principal Huguenot preachers were Pierre du Moulin 
(1568-1658), Michel Le Faucheur (1585-1657), Jean Mestrezat 
(1592-1657), Jean Daille (1594-1670), Moise Amyraut (1596- 
1664), Raymond Gaches (1615-68), Jean Claude (1619-87), 
Pierre du Bosc (1623-92), Daniel de Superville (1657-1728), 
and especially Jacques Saurin (1677-1730). The last was 
preacher to the refugees in The Hague, where he addressed 
crowded audiences and commanded the admiration even of 
Roman Catholics. 

The French preachers have been admirably characterized by 
Vinet in the work above mentioned. 

(3) Modern Protestant preachers in France and French Switz- 
erland : 

Vinet of Lausanne (1797-1847) marks a revival of the the- 
ory and practice of pulpit eloquence and its literature in the 
French language. Adolphe Monod (d. 1856), minister at the 
Oratoire in Paris, was the greatest French Protestant preacher of 
the nineteenth century, full of faith and the Holy Ghost, and of 
captivating beauty of style, equal to the pulpit lights of the 
seventeenth century. Next to him should be mentioned Malan, 
Merle d'Aubigne, Coulin, all of Geneva; Coquerel, Ed. de 
Pressense, Eugene Bersier, and Theodore Monod (nephew of 
Adolphe), all of Paris. 

IV. The modern German Pulpit begins with the genial Her- 
der (1744-1803), poet, historian, theologian, and court preacher 
at Biickeburg, and last general superintendent at Weimar, the 
contemporary of Goethe and Schiller. He emancipated preach- 
ing from the jejune, moralizing monotony of rationalism and 
infused into it his enthusiasm for universal humanity. 

Lavater (1741-1801), the physiognomist, poet and preacher 
at St. Peter's in Zurich, represents Christianity as a matter of 
feeling and experience and living communion with Christ, 
which he has well expressed in his hymn : 

" O Jesus Christ, grow thou in me, 
And all things else recede." 

Reinhard (d. 1812), court-chaplain at Dresden, "the inex- 



THE PROTESTANT PULPIT OX THE CONTINENT. 487 

haustible," surpassed all German preachers of his age. His 
sermons fill forty volumes (1819-37). 

Schleiermacher (d. 1834), a master of dialectical analysis of 
religious feeling, a preacher to the educated, the Plato of Ger- 
many. 

Menken (d. 1831), Eeformed pastor in Bremen, a master of 
expository sermons. 

Claus Harms of Kiel (d. 1855), Lutheran, original, quaint, 
witty and fresh. 

Draseke (d. 1849), preacher in Bremen, and, last, bishop in 
Magdeburg, highly polished, and admired by cultivated audi- 
ences. 

Theremin (d. 1846), court-chaplain in Berlin, the most pol- 
ished preacher of Germany, faultless in style and thoroughly 
evangelical in sentiment. 

Ludwig Hofacker (d. 1828), the most popular revival preacher 
of Wurtemburg, and his brother Wilhelm Hofacker of Stutt- 
gart (d. 1848), less popular but more learned and accomplished. 

Gottfried Daniel Krummacher (d. 1837), pastor of the Re- 
formed Church in Elberfeld, Calvinistic, severe, strictly bibli- 
cal, but at times given to arbitrary typical allegorizing. His 
nephew, Friederich Wilhelm Krummacher (d. 1868), pastor at 
Elberfeld, then in Berlin, at last court-chaplain at Potsdam, 
the most eloquent pulpit orator of Germany, a painter in 
words, highly imaginative, dramatic, fruitful and suggestive. 
His Elijah the Tislibite has been translated into nearly all the 
languages of Europe and found a larger circulation in Eng- 
land and America than in Germany. 

Tholuck (d. 1877), a model preacher for theological students, 
noble, thoughtful, spirited, polished, combining deep earnest- 
ness with warm feeling. 

We can only mention in addition, Mallet of Bremen (d. 1865), 
Kohlbriigge of Elberfeld (d. 1875), Lohe of Bavaria (d. 1872), 
Nitzsch of Berlin (d. 1868), Wilhelm Hoffmann, general super- 
intendent and court preacher at Berlin (d. 1873), Beck of 
Tubingen (d. 1878), Julius Muller of Halle (d. 1878), Arndt of 
Berlin (d. 1881), Ahlfeld of Leipzig (d. 1884), Gerok of Stutt- 
gart (d. 1890), and Christlieb of Bonn (d. 1889), the author of a 
brief but comprehensive history of pulpit eloquence. Kogel, 
Stoecker, Dryander, all of Berlin, and Beyschlag of Halle, are 
among the best living preachers of Germany. 



488 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

CHAPTER CCLXXI. 

THE BRITISH PULPIT. 

The English and American Pulpit is the richest of all, com- 
mands the largest audiences, and exerts the greatest influence. 

The Reformation lasted longer in England than on the Con- 
tinent, and extends from the breach of Henry VIII. with the 
pope and the appointment of Cranmer as Archbishop of Can- 
terbury in 1532 until the Toleration Act under William and 
Mary, 1688. It may be divided into two great acts : the first 
was a conflict with popery till its final overthrow under Queen 
Elizabeth ; the second was a conflict of Puritanism with semi- 
popery and despotism, and ended with the expulsion of the 
Stuarts, the re-establishment of the Episcopal Church, and a 
limited toleration for orthodox Dissenters. The second Refor- 
mation is the most stirring and interesting period in English 
history, and the golden age of the British Pulpit. 

The Puritan Pulpit. 

Baxter, Bunyan, and Howe are the chief heroes and also 
martyrs of the Puritan Pulpit, who after the Restoration of 
the Stuarts were ejected, exposed to poverty, fines, insult and 
imprisonment for no other crime than obeying their conscience, 
but who are still living forces in English theology and ascetic 
literature. 

Richard Baxter (1615-92), the model pastor of Kiddermin- 
ster, a promoter of peace between Prelatists and Puritans, Pres- 
byterians and Independents, in an age of intense controversy, 
was the most learned and fertile author and most saintly char- 
acter among the Puritans. He wrote one hundred and sixty 
books and tracts; the best are: Call to the Unconverted (of 
which 20,000 copies were sold in one year, 1657), The Reformed 
Pastor, and The Saints' Everlasting Pest. His sermons are sol- 
emn, searching and impressive ; his style is clear and simple, 
but negligent and prolix. In his old age he dwelt more on the 
love of God and Christian charity, and " his sermons became 
hymns of praise." li His practical writings," says Isaac Bar- 
row, "were never mended, and his controversial seldom re- 
futed." He was in advance of his times in the principles of 



THE BRITISH PULPIT. 489 

toleration and Church union. The notorious Chief-Justice 
Jeffries sentenced him to prison in 1685 ; but he was released 
after eighteen months through the exertions of a Roman Cath- 
olic nobleman, and lived to enjoy the Toleration Act of 1688, 
universally respected for his learning, courage and piety. 
Churchmen and Dissenters united in raising his monument 
at Kidderminster in 1875, and Dean Stanley of Westminster 
pronounced the dedicatory oration. 

John Bunyan (1628-88), the unschooled tinker, preached in 
a Baptist chapel at Bedford, was silenced and imprisoned in 
Bedford jail for twelve years, and after his release continued 
to preach till his death. He was taught by the Holy Ghost 
through the Scriptures, a prophet in the apostolic sense of the 
term, bent upon the one aim — to save the souls of men by the 
simple power of the gospel. His most powerful sermon, how- 
ever, is a religious novel or an extended allegory, The Pilgrim's 
Progress, which he composed in his prison cell. It has been 
called by Longfellow " the English Divina Commedia" and is 
one of the most popular books, if not the most popular, next 
to the Bible. 

John Howe (1630-1706), called the " Platonic Puritan," the 
favorite chaplain of Cromwell, was a theological preacher, 
scholastic in form, abounding in learned and Latin phrases, 
but thoughtful, spiritual and broad. 

Stephen Marshall, lecturer at St. Margaret's, Westminster, 
was the best preacher among the members of the Westminster 
Assembly, " the trumpet by whom they sounded their solemn 
fasts" (Fuller). He preached often before the Long Parlia- 
ment, the Lord Mayor, and the Assembly. At the solemn fast, 
May 17, 1644, he prayed a sermon of two hours' length before 
the Parliament and Assembly. The religious exercises of that 
day, which the Scotch commissioner Baillie called " the sweet- 
est day " he saw in England, lasted eight hours. Marshall was 
buried in Westminster Abbey, 1655, but shamefully disinterred 
with Cromwell and other Puritans after the Restoration. 

The devotional fervor and endurance of the Puritan divines 
is almost without a parallel in the history of devotion. And 
yet if we consider the length of their prayers and sermons, 
their moral austerity, their peculiar phraseology and cant, their 
aversion to art and the innocent amusements of life, we need 
not wonder at the popular rebound to the opposite extreme 



490 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

under the frivolous and licentious Charles II. ; " who never said 
a foohsh thing and never did a wise one." 

The Episcopal Pulpit. 

The Anglican Pulpit, or the Pulpit of the Established Church, 
which is still called national, but now represents only half 
of the nation, reached its height after the fall of Puritanism, 
in the latter half of the seventeenth century. It was in full 
sympathy with episcopacy and royalty, but had the benefit of 
Puritan training, and rebuked the immorality and vice which 
characterized the reigns of the last two Stuarts and which oc- 
casioned their final overthrow. 

Jeremy Taylor (1613-67), the son of a Cambridge barber, 
chaplain to Archbishop Laud and King Charles I., appointed 
bishop of Down and Connor in 1660, has been called the 
Shakespeare of the British pulpit, and the Homer of divines, 
and his sermons " a garden of spices." He was gifted with a 
gorgeous imagination, not always controlled by reason and 
judgment, and was the most learned and brilliant preacher of 
his age, and as pious as any Puritan. His sermons are studded 
with classical quotations and allusions. During his exile under 
the Long Parliament, he advocated religious toleration in The 
Liberty of Prophesying, but changed his views after the restora- 
tion of the Stuarts. 

Isaac Barrow (1630-77) preached profound and lengthy trea- 
tises on Christian doctrines and virtues, which are better fitted 
for reading in the study than for delivery from the pulpit. 

Robert South (1633-1716), chaplain to Charles II., was a 
staunch royalist and prelatist, but at the same time a rigorous 
Calvinist and severe moralist, full of genius, wit and sarcasm, 
an unmerciful polemic, a master of trenchant English style. 
He had more grit than grace. 

John Tillotson (1630-94), Archbishop of Canterbury, repre- 
sents the Latitudinarian Pulpit. He was the son of a zealous 
Puritan, but under the influence of the Cambridge Platonists 
he became the most liberal churchman of the reign of William 
of Orange, who made him primate, against his inclination, and 
head of a commission for the reconciliation of Dissenters and 
the reform of abuses. Bishop Burnet says of him : " He was 
not only the best preacher of the age, but seemed to have 
brought preaching to perfection." He preached a mild, tolerant, 



THE BRITISH PULPIT. 491 

undogmatic, yet evangelical Christianity, in easy, clear, almost 
colloquial style, and with the tact of a man of the world. His 
sermons are free from learned quotations, artificial arrange- 
ment, endless subdivisions, and the whole pedantry of scholastic 
sermonizing. They were collected by his chaplain, Dr. Barker, 
and published in 1694, in fourteen volumes (3d ed. 1704), often 
reprinted, and translated by Mosheim into German. 

The Methodist Pulpit. 

The Methodist revival of the eighteenth century was the 
greatest religious movement in England after Puritanism, and 
produced a new line of great preachers, of whom Wesley and 
Whitefield are the chief. Their aim was the conversion and 
regeneration of sinners, and God crowned their labors with 
marvelous success. They differed in theology, but were one in 
heart and equally consecrated to their common Master. Wes- 
ley made the truth of Arminianism, Whitefield the truth of 
Calvinism, a converting agency. It was largely due to their 
labors that England was saved from the destructive wave of 
infidelity which swept over the Continent in the eighteenth 
century. 

John Wesley (1703-91), of Puritan ancestry, a student of 
Oxford, and a preacher, organizer and spiritual reformer, lived, 
labored, and died in the communion of the Church of England, 
of which he was a presbyter, but became the founder of a new 
denomination which mediates between the Episcopal and the 
Nonconformist bodies, and has grown more rapidly than any 
Church, not only in England, but still more in the United States, 
where it outnumbers every other Protestant denomination. 
His sermons are short, plain, well arranged, pointed, doctrinal 
and practical. They preach a free and full salvation, sincerely 
offered to all. They are the chief theological and homiletical 
text-book of Methodist ministers. 

George Whitefield (1714-70), a fellow-student and coworker 
of Wesley till 1740, when they separated on doctrinal grounds, 
was the greatest Calvinistic, as Wesley was the greatest Armin- 
ian, revival preacher of the last century. He had all the spiritual 
and physical qualities of a popular orator and dramatic actor. 
He was a genuine apostolic evangelist, who led thousands of 
hearers in Old England and New England to repentance and 
faith in Christ. He crossed the Atlantic seven times, and turned 



492 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

even the ship into a pulpit. His power was not in wealth or 
profundity of thought or in logical reasoning, but in the in- 
tense ear&estness, pathos and solemnity, graceful and impres- 
sive delivery, and the vivid presentation of spiritual truth. It 
is said that " persons were driven mad with fear under his im- 
passioned oratory." Even the sober, philosophic Franklin could 
not resist Whitefield's appeal for charity. 

The English Pulpit of the Nineteenth Century* 

England has produced a large number of distinguished 
preachers during this century. We mention, among Episco- 
palians (low-church, high-church, and broad-church) : Melvill, 
Stowell, MacNeil; Pusey, Newman, Keble, Manning, Bishop 
Wilberf orce, Canon Liddon ; Whately, Arnold, Maurice, Hare, 
Trench, Kingsley, Stanley, Robertson, Parrar. Among Bap- 
tists : Robert Hall, Andrew Puller, John Foster, Spurgeon, 
Alex. McLaren. Among Independents : John Angel James, 
Thomas Binney, Alex. Raleigh, W. L. Alexander, John Stough- 
ton, Robert William Dale, Henry Allon, Newman Hall, Joseph 
Parker. Among Methodists : Joseph Beaumont, Jabez Bunt- 
ing, William Morley Punshon. Among Presbyterians : J. Os- 
wald Dykes, Donald Fraser, W. Gr. Elmslie, Adolf Saphir (a 
converted Israelite). Among Unitarians : James Martineau, 
Stopford Augustus Brooke (who was formerly chaplain to the 
Queen, but left the Established Church in 1880). 

We can only describe a few representative preachers in their 
leading characteristics. 

(1) Episcopalians : 

Henry Melvill (1798-1871), canon of St. Paul's Cathedral 
and Golden Lecturer on Tuesdays at St. Margaret's, was called 
"the evangelical Chrysostom." He confirmed the faith and 
ravished the ears of his hearers coming from the mart and the 
exchange, by the rich melody of his voice, sentence following 
sentence harmoniously, like wave upon wave. He selected un- 
usual texts and handled them with great ingenuity. Christ 
shone out as the diamond in all his sermons. 

John Henry Newman (1801-90), the master of poetic prose, 
and intellectual leader of the Anglo-Catholic movement towards 
Rome, preached his parochial sermons at St. Mary's in Oxford, 

* G-eorge J. Davies, Successful Preachers (mostly Episcopalian), London. 
1884. Also Kempe mentioned above. 



THE BRITISH PULPIT. 493 

before his secession to Rome, but they are still studied by 
Protestants, and his hymn, " Lead, kindly Light," will retain a 
favorite place in all English hymn-books. 

Frederick William Robertson (1816-53) represents the evan- 
gelical Broad- Church School by his sermons, which combine 
intellectual strength with aesthetic beauty, the highest culture 
with deep spirituality and love of humanity, and are well cal- 
culated to gain over thoughtful and honest skeptics. 

Canon Henry Parry Liddon (1829-90) was the favorite 
preacher of the Ritualistic and Sacramentarian School which 
has grown out of the Oxford Tractarian movement. His uni- 
versity sermons are models. 

Archdeacon Farrar (b. 1831) is the most fertile and exuberant 
living preacher of the evangelical Broad-Church School. 

(2) Dissenters : 

Robert Hall (1764-1831), minister of a Baptist chapel in 
Cambridge, though an intense sufferer from an acute disease, 
was one of the most powerful preachers of his day, full of 
thought, wit, and fancy expressed in racy English. His dis- 
course on " Modern Infidelity " is a brilliant apology for Chris- 
tianity and a masterpiece of English style. In theology he was 
a moderate Calvinist. When one of his hearers rebuked him 
for not preaching the five points of Calvinism, emphatically add- 
ing, "I believe in predestination," Robert Hall replied: "So 
do I. I believe you are predestinated to be a fool, and you 
have made your calling and election sure." When asked how 
many discourses a minister could write in a week, he gave this 
answer : " If he is a deep thinker and condenser, one ; if he is 
an ordinary average man, two j if he is an ass, he will produce 
half a dozen." 

Charles H. Spurgeon (1834-92), a strict Calvinist and lib- 
eral Baptist, was the most popular and successful preacher 
of his age in England, who for many years addressed from 
Sunday to Sunday five thousand hearers at the Metropolitan 
Tabernacle in London, and millions of readers in all parts of 
the world, pouring forth an inexhaustible stream of biblical 
and evangelical instruction and edification in homely, pithy 
and forcible Anglo-Saxon. He also founded and successfully 
conducted an orphanage, a theological seminary, and a mission- 
ary society. His influence for good far exceeded the limits of 
his Calvinistic creed, and of the English language. 



494 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

The Scotch Pulpit* 

The Presbyterian Church of Scotland in its three branches, 
the Established or National, the United Presbyterian, and the 
Free Church, abounds in solid, instructive and fervent preach- 
ers. In no country is preaching better appreciated, and re- 
ligious intelligence more general among the people, than in 
Scotland. The Presbyterian churches in London also and in 
the British provinces are well provided with preachers. Begin- 
ning with the Reformation, we may mention Knox, Melville, 
Craig, Bruce, Henderson, Rutherford, Dickson, John Living- 
stone, Gray, Gillespie, Leighton, Robert Douglas, Renwick, 
Ebenezer Erskine, Ralph Erskine, Hugh Blair, John Erskine, 
Thomas MacCrie, John Brown, Ralph Wardlaw, Irving, Chal- 
mers, MacCheyne, Guthrie, Candlish, Norman Macleod, Marshall 
Lang, Principals Tulloch, Caird, and Cairns, James Hamilton, 
Donald Fraser, J. Oswald Dykes, John Ker, MacNeil, Alex. 
Whyte, Stalker, etc. 

Edward Irving (1792-1834) was a friend of Thomas Carlyle, 
an assistant of Dr. Chalmers in Glasgow, and wound up his 
brilliant but erratic career at the Caledonian Church in London, 
where, by his commanding form, prophetic mien, musical voice, 
and naming eloquence, he attracted men of the highest stand- 
ing in Church and State, who listened with wonder to his ora- 
tions on the oracles of God, till he was condemned by the 
presbytery of London for his views on the humanity of Christ 
(1830). He fell in with the voices of prophecy and the speaking 
in an unknown tongue, which gave rise to " the Catholic Apos- 
tolic Church," usually called after his name. To hear him re- 
peat the Lord's Prayer was like listening to an exquisite piece 
of music. Thomas Carlyle regarded him as the victim of hal- 
lucination, but called him "the best man I have found in this 
world, or hope to find." 

Thomas Chalmers (1780-1847), the leader of the heroic band 
who in 1843 sacrificed their livings for the great principle of 
the sole headship of Christ, and founded by a liberality without 
example the Free Church of Scotland, one of the most flour- 
ishing in Christendom, was a man of large heart, full of the 

* For fuller information see Wm. Garden Blaikie, TJw Preachers of 
Scotland (Edinburgh, 1888) ; and William M. Taylor, The Scottish Pulpit 
(New York, 1887). 



THE BRITISH PULPIT. 495 

perfervidwm ingenium Scotornm. His sermons contained gener- 
ally a single thought, which he richly unfolded from cen- 
ter to circumference. They remind one of EzekiePs vision of 
wheels within wheels of living creatures. The tendency to am- 
plification and verbosity is overshadowed by the merits which 
made his pulpit at Glasgow and Edinburgh an inspiration 
to all English-speaking Christendom. He was a truly great 
and good man sent from God to revive and to re-establish 
Christianity in Scotland. He widened the sphere of the pulpit 
and brought it into contact with the culture and humanities 
of the age. He used science and philosophy as allies of the 
Christian faith and duty, and made the stars in heaven and the 
flowers on earth preach the gospel. He covered the Calvinistic 
theology with flesh and blood, extended the love of God to all 
mankind, and blended Christianity and philanthropy in insep- 
arable union. 

Thomas Guthrie (1803-73), who next to Chalmers did most 
in laying the foundations of the Free Church, and collected in 
one year £116,370 for the manse fund, was not the most in- 
tellectual, but the most poetic and pictorial speaker of Scot- 
land, both in the pulpit and on the platform. His power of 
illustration was inexhaustible. He was also full of genial mirth 
and humor, but suppressed it in the house of God. He could 
have extemporized a sermon at any time, but he always care- 
fully prepared himself. He minded the three P's — Proving, 
Paintiug, Persuading — that is, he addressed the reason, the 
fancy, and the heart. A Scottish elder thus described him : 
" Maister Guthrie ! He never had to rummage long for a word. 
Lots of illustrations, frae the sea and the earth and the air and 
onything that cam handy. Illustrations — thousands — extraor- 
dinar — a ready wittit mon — I will say that — tall of stature — 
wi' a voice like thunder." Guthrie brought sunshine and fresh 
air, the spirit of the poetry of Walter Scott and Burns, into the 
Scottish pulpit, and showed that the gospel, as he used to say, 
is unfriendly to nothing hi human nature except its corruptions. 
Like Chalmers, he was an ardent philanthropist, and took the 
liveliest interest in the neglected classes and " ragged schools." 

Norman Macleod (1812-72), minister of the Barony Church, 
Glasgow, and a favorite chaplain of the Queen, was in his day 
the most eloquent preacher of the Established Kirk, and the 
shrewdest man in Scotland. He was a friendly and congenial 



496 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

rival of Chalmers, warm-hearted, broad and catholic in his 
sympathies, liberal yet thoroughly evangelical in his theology, 
and an enthusiastic advocate of missions. On his return from 
India he delivered, as Moderator of the Church of Scotland 
(1869), one of the most eloquent addresses on Missions which 
I ever heard. Dr. Blaikie, one of the last survivors of the 
Fathers of the Free Church, thus characterizes him : "Norman 
Macleod furnished a great contrast to the old moderates, in the 
intense fervor, the boundless sympathy, and the missionary 
enthusiasm of his character. A man of genius, and of great 
literary and dramatic power, it was his heart that made him a 
preacher, and the heart would hardly submit to the guidance of 
the head. Not seeing a way of reconciling the doctrines of the 
standards with that conception of the full and ever-diffusive 
love of God in which he delighted, he made the standards go to 
the wall. Neither Chalmers nor Guthrie, whose hearts were as 
large as his, had had to make any such surrender. But noth- 
ing could have been more admirable than the effect he gave in 
his latter years to his conviction that the gospel was good 
news for every creature. His visit to India and his ceaseless 
endeavors to rouse the home Church to a sense of missionary 
obligation form one of the noblest chapters of Christian biog- 
raphy, and claim the warmest admiration of every evangelical 
soul." * 

CHAPTER CCLXXIL 

THE AMERICAN PULPIT. 

Sprague's Annals of the American Pulpit, above quoted (p. 477), contain 
about 1500 sketches of Congregational (vols. i. and ii.), Presbyterian (vols. 
iii. and iv.), Episcopalian (vol. v.), Baptist (vol. vi.), Methodist (vol. vii.), 
Unitarian (vol. viii.), Lutheran, Eeformed, and other preachers (vol. ix.), 
from the earliest settlements down to 1855. 

As all Christian denominations are represented in America, 
so also are all styles of preaching, in different languages, though 
prevailingly in English. The American Pulpit is untrammeled, 
aggressive, popular and practical. The gift of speech is very 
common in this free republic, and is early cultivated and stimu- 
lated by public life. The divinity which hedges the Greek and 

* The Preachers of Scotland, p. 292. 



THE AMERICAN PULPIT. 497 

Roman priest does not protect the Protestant preacher, who 
stands or falls with his personal character. No minister is re- 
spected who does not believe and practice what he preaches. Yet 
the clergy occupy a higher social position, are more respected 
and beloved, and better supported by the people in the United 
States than in the State Churches of Europe. No public men, 
except a few statesmen like Lincoln, and generals like Grant, 
have received such popular ovations as Henry Ward Beecher 
and Phillips Brooks, whose deaths were lamented as a national 
loss. 

The press is a rival but also an ally of the pulpit, by publish- 
ing in the Monday issues the most popular discourses of Sun- 
day, and thus multiplying their influence a thousandfold. This 
is not done by newspapers in Europe. 

Puritanism and Presbyterianism take the lead in preaching 
as well as in theology, and are essentially Calvinistic and doc- 
trinal. The Methodist and Baptist pulpits come next : less 
learned and intellectual, but more simple, emotional and popu- 
lar. The pulpit of the Protestant Episcopal Church dates from 
its first two bishops, White of Pennsylvania, and Seabury of 
Connecticut, and the organization of that Church on an in- 
dependent basis. The German churches, since the days of 
Muhlenberg and Schlatter, follow German models, but are be- 
coming more and more Americanized and Anglicized. 

The first generation of ministers in New England were 
mostly bred in English universities and had a scholastic style. 
The distinctive American preaching, however, began a century 
after the settlement of New England, with Jonathan Edwards 
(1703-58), who, together with Whitefield, led the great awaken- 
ing of 1740. He thus united Calvinistic theology with evan- 
gelistic, Methodistic revival preaching. His sermons were hard 
and rugged in style, but carefully elaborated, full of deep and 
solemn thought, sustained by the purity and dignity of his 
character. They startled the conscience like the judgment 
trump of God, and resulted in many lasting conversions. 

He was followed by a race of theological preachers, as the 
younger Edwards, Hopkins, Bellamy, Emmons, Dwight, Griffin, 
Charles G. Finney, Lyman Beecher, and many others. Their 
sermons are highly intellectual, doctrinal and instructive, like 
theological lectures, addressed to the head and conscience rather 
than the heart and affections. 



498 THEOLOGICAL PROPAEDEUTIC. 

Lyman Beecher (1775-1863), who labored as a Congregational 
pastor in Boston and afterwards as Professor of the New-School 
Presbyterian Seminary in Cincinnati, was a born orator, full of 
fire, and his discourses against intemperance and other moral 
evils produced a powerful effect. He was tried for heretical views 
on the doctrine of the atonement, but was acquitted (1835). 

His more celebrated son, Henry Ward Beecher (1813-87), 
preached for forty years as an apostle of humanity, to an inde- 
pendent congregation in Brooklyn, "the city of churches," and 
we may say, to the whole reading world — ever fresh and ever 
new * He was the most original, fertile and popular orator that 
America has produced, and shared with Spurgeon of London a 
world-wide fame and influence. He swayed an audience from 
the pulpit and the platform like a king, by enthusiasm, passion, 
argument, illustration, wit and humor. A perpetual spring of 
flowers seemed to bloom in his mind. He was a true poet in 
prose, but never quoted poetry. His preaching, like that of his 
father, was devoted to moral reform, and, like his sister's Uncle 
Toirfs Cabin, prepared the public conscience for the abolition 
of slavery. His oratory reaped during the Civil War its great- 
est triumph in England, where he converted hostile audiences 
against their will. All his instincts were for freedom and prog- 
ress. In theology, as far as he had any, he was independent 
of all systems.t He preached humanity and Christian morality 
rather than doctrine, but he was a firm believer in the divinity 
of Christ, who was to him the only God he knew. He belonged 
to no sect, but loved all who love Christ. 

Horace Bushnell of Hartford (1802-76) published Sermons 
for the JSfeiv Life, which are among the most original, brilliant 
and polished in the English language. 

The same may be said of the Discourses of Professor Edwards 
A. Park (published in 1885). When he preached at Andover 
or Boston, it was a sort of event. 

These were all Congregationalists of New England origin. 

Next to the Puritan Pulpit is the Presbyterian, the Methodist, 
the Baptist, the Unitarian, and the Episcopal. 

* He humorously said on his seventieth birthday: "My father gave 
me a healthy stomach, my mother dedicated me to foreign missions ; 
"but God had mercy upon the heathen and sent me to the Christians in 
Brooklyn." 

t I heard him say in the pulpit : " Theology is nothing but logic stiff- 
ened and sanctified." 



HOMILETICAL LITERATURE. 499 

The most distinguished Unitarian preachers of New England 
are Channing, Theodore Parker, and Andrew P. Peabody. 

Among the numerous Presbyterian preachers should be men- 
tioned Samuel Davies, John M. Mason, Erskine Mason, Archi- 
bald Alexander and his two sons, James W. and Joseph Addi- 
son, Charles and A. A. Hodge, Albert Barnes of Philadelphia, 
William Adams, Thomas Skinner, Roswell D. Hitchcock, and 
W. G-. T. Shedd. Professor Hitchcock (d. 1887) left but few ser- 
mons in print, but was a consummate orator, unsurpassed in rich 
thought, terse, epigrammatic expression, and impressive delivery. 

Among Methodist preachers we mention John P. Durbin, 
John McClintock, Bishop Simpson ; among Baptists, Francis 
Wayland and Richard Fuller. 

Phillips Brooks (1835-93) was by far the greatest pulpit orator 
of the Protestant Episcopal Church, and commanded the respect 
and affection of all other Churches by his evangelical catholicity 
and enthusiasm for humanity. 

Among the preachers still living, we may mention the scholarly 
and accomplished Dr. Richard S. Storrs, who adorns a Con- 
gregational pulpit in Brooklyn, and is called "the American 
Ghrysostom " ; Lyman Abbott, the liberal successor of Beecher, 
and editor of " The Outlook " ; and Thomas De Witt Talmage 
(b. 1832), a Presbyterian minister in Brooklyn, whose original, 
pithy and entertaining sermons are more widely circulated than 
any since the deaths of Beecher and Spurgeon. 

Dwight Lyman Moody (b. 1837), a layman ordained by the 
Holy Ghost, deserves to be called the greatest evangelist since 
the days of Whitefield. Originally a Congregationalist and 
Calvinist, he belongs to no sect and to all sects, and unselfishly 
labors only for Christ and his kingdom. His truly Christian 
influence extends as far as the English language, and the fruits 
of his plain, direct, earnest and rousing sermons, full of Bible 
knowledge, wisdom, common sense and mother- wit, benefit all 
Churches. 

CHAPTER CCLXXIIL 

HOMILETICAL LITERATURE. 

1. English works on the theory of preaching, by James M. Hoppin 
(New York, 1869), Shedd (New York, 1869), John A. Broadus (Philadel- 
phia, 5th ed. 1876), Kidder (1864), R. S. Storrs (1875), Henry Burgess 
(1881), Austin Phelps (New York, 1882). 



500 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

The Yale Lectures on Preaching, delivered in the Divinity School in 
New Haven by Henry Ward Beecher, Phillips Brooks, John Hall, 
R. W. Dale, Matthew Simpson, Wm. M. Taylor, Howard Crosby, James 
Stalker, E. F. Horton, and others. 

2. French works : A. Vinet : Homiletique ou Tlieorie de la Predication 
(Paris, 1853; English translation, Edinburgh, 1853). — M. Bautain : The 
Art of Extempore Speaking (4th ed. New York, 1867). 

3. German works on Homiletic by Schott (Leipzig, 2d ed. 1828-49, 3 
vols.), Theremin (1837), Palmer (6th ed. 1887), Schweizer (1848), Krauss 
(1883), Bassermann (1885), Christlieb (posthumous, 1893, to be translated 
into English). 

Note. — It has been my privilege during the last fifty or sixty years to hear 
some of the most eminent preachers of the age, who have deeply impressed 
me with a sense of the sublime mission of the Christian pulpit, and the 
variety in the unity as well as the unity in the variety of spiritual gifts in 
the service of the same divine Lord and Saviour. I may mention : Dann, 
W. Hof acker, and Gerok at Stuttgart ; Tholuck and Julius Miiller at Halle ; 
Theremin, Gossner, Arndt, and Kogel at Berlin ; Ahlfeld at Leipzig ; Claus 
Harms at Kiel ; Mallet at Bremen ; F. W. Krummacher and Sander at 
Elberfeld; Gaussen, Malan, Merle D'Aubigne, and Coulin at Geneva; 
Adolphe Monod, Bersier, and Pere Hyacinthe at Paris ; Van Oosterzee 
at Utrecht ; Hugh Stowell, Hugh MacNeil, Professor Maurice, Archbishop 
Trench, Dean Stanley, Canon Liddon, Archdeacon Farrar, James Hamilton, 
J. Oswald Dykes, and Spurgeon at London ; Guthrie, Candlish, and Norman 
Macleod at Edinburgh ; William Adams, James W. Alexander, Roswell D. 
Hitchcock, W. G. T. Shedd, G. L. Prentiss, Thomas S. Hastings, William M. 
Taylor, John Hall, C. H. Parkhurst, R. S. McArthur, J. R. Paxton, and 
Bishop Potter at New York ; H. W. Beecher, Richard S. Storrs, Theodore 
L. Cuyler, and Thomas DeWitt Talmage at Brooklyn ; H. Bushnell at Hart- 
ford ; Edwards A. Park at Andover ; and Bishop Brooks at Boston. 



CHAPTER CCLXXIY. 

CATECHETIC. 

Catechetic is from Karyx^lv or KarrixKzw (Kara and yx°£), to resound, to 
instruct orally ; KaTrjxvryg, teacher, catechist ; /ca-n^oiy/ewf, novice, cate- 
chumen, an applicant for church-membership in process of instruction. 
Luke 1:4; Acts 18 : 25 ; 21 : 22-24 ; Rom. 2 : 18 ; 1 Cor. 14 : 19 ; Gal. 6 : 6. 

Catechetic is the science and art of religions instruction, pre- 
paratory to chnrch-membership. It is based npon Pedagogic 
(Pedagogy), or the science of education, and applies it to religion. 
It embraces the elementary knowledge necessary for an intelli- 
gent profession of faith and obedience. It is usually confined 
to an exposition of the Lord's Prayer, the Apostles' Creed, and 
the Ten Commandments, or to an instruction how to pray, what 



CATECHETIC. 501 

to believe, and what to practice, in order to be useful on earth 
and to be saved in heaven. 

The subjects of Catechetic are baptized children or unbaptized 
adults, proselytes and converts from other religions. 

The first converts of Christianity were Jews, who by their 
knowledge of the Old Testament were already sufficiently pre- 
pared (Rom. 2 : 18), and needed only to be convinced of the 
Messiahship of Jesus of Nazareth. Hence the penitent hearers 
of the pentecostal sermon of Peter were at once baptized. The 
heathen were usually very ignorant. Even the educated and 
learned among them required more or less instruction in the 
fundamentals of religion. In large cities, special schools were 
founded for this purpose. The catechetical school of Alexan- 
dria became the first theological seminary, in which Clement 
and Origen taught. 

In the early Church, catechetical instruction preceded baptism, 
and the same is still the case in all missionary fields. Where 
infant baptism is introduced, catechetical instruction succeeds 
baptism and looks to confirmation or some solemn act by which 
children, having grown up to the age of responsibility, rat- 
ify their baptismal vow made in their behalf by parents or 
sponsors, and are introduced to the rights and privileges of 
full communion. 

Christ commands his disciples to teach all nations (Matt. 
28 : 19). This includes children as well as adults. The impor- 
tance of catechetical instruction was always admitted in the 
Christian Church. Ignorance is death to religion. Archbishop 
Ussher says : " The neglect of catechizing is the frustrating of 
the whole work of the ministry." 

But catechizing is not the exclusive duty of the ministry, nor 
sufficient of itself to qualify for confirmation and the commun- 
ion. The catechumen must give satisfactory evidence of re- 
pentance and faith. The compulsory system which requires 
all children to be catechized and confirmed is an abuse of State 
churches, and has created an unreasonable prejudice against 
catechetical instruction in the United States. 



502 THEOLOGICAL PROPAEDEUTIC. 

CHAPTER CCLXXV. 

TYPICAL CATECHISMS. 

The necessity of catechetical instruction gave rise to cate- 
chisms, especially at the time of the Reformation. Nearly all 
the Reformers, — Luther, Brenz, Justus Jonas, OEcolampadius, 
Bullinger, Leo Judae, Calvin, Zacharias Ursinus and Caspar 
Olevianus, prepared such works. 

We shall mention the chief catechisms, which have acquired 
symbolical authority and are still in use. 

I. Luther's Catechisms, a large one for teachers, and a small 
one for children, were prepared in 1529 to meet the lamentable 
ignorance which then prevailed in Saxony and throughout Ger- 
many. The small catechism appe'als directly to the heart, and 
is a model of childlike simplicity. It begins with the Ten Com- 
mandments (retaining the Roman division and abridging it) ; 
then follows an explanation of the Apostles' Creed, and the 
Lord's Prayer ; to these three divisions are added two sections 
on Baptism, the Lord's Supper, and in later editions (since 
1654) a sixth section on Confession and Absolution, or the 
Power of the Keys* 

II. The Heidelberg Catechism, prepared by Ursinus (a pupil 
of Melanchthon), and Olevianus (a pupil of Calvin), in 1563, for 
the Reformed Church of the Palatinate, hence also called the 
Palatinate Catechism, acquired great popularity among the 
Reformed Churches of the Continent, and has symbolical au- 
thority in the Dutch and German Reformed Churches in Amer- 
ica. It represents a moderate, evangelical and irenical Calvin- 
ism. It is divided into three parts, following the order of the 
Epistle to the Romans : first, of man's sin ; second, of Christ's re- 
demption ; third, of man's gratitude for redemption. It puts the 
Ten Commandments, as a rule of Christian life, in the third 
part, after the Apostles' Creed ; while Luther reverses this order, 
and treats the law as a schoolmaster unto Christ. The answers 
express the knowledge and experience of a mature Christian. 
The admirable answer to the first question, " What is thy only 
comfort in life and in death ? " strikes the keynote of this cate- 

* See Schaff, Church History, vol. vi., pp. 550-557. 



TYPICAL CATECHISMS. 503 

chism. It is less childlike, but fuller and richer and intended 
for a more mature age than that of Luther. 

III. The Anglican Catechism (1549, enlarged 1604, revised 
1661) is the standard catechism of the Episcopal Church of Eng- 
land and her daughters in the British colonies and the United 
States. It is the shortest and the most churchly of the leading 
Protestant catechisms. It begins with the questions, " What 
is your name?" and "Who gave you this name?" to which the 
answer is returned, " My godfathers and godmothers (sponsors) 
in my baptism; wherein I was made a member of Christ, a 
child of God, and an inheritor of the kingdom of heaven." 
Then follows a simple exposition of the Creed, the Decalogue, 
the Lord's Prayer, and the sacraments of Baptism and the 
Lord's Supper. 

IV. The Westminster Catechisms, Longer and Shorter, pre- 
pared by the Westminster Assembly, 1647, are used in English- 
speaking Presbyterian and Independent Churches. The Shorter 
Catechism is a model of clear, precise, logical definitions, but 
lacks the glow of feeling, is more addressed to the head than 
the heart, and departs from the traditional order which makes 
the Apostles' Creed the basis of doctrinal exposition* It begins 
characteristically with the question, " What is the chief end of 
man ? " and the answer, " To glorify God and to enjoy him for- 
ever." It is impersonal, and gives the answers in the form of a 
theological definition embodying the question • while the other 
catechisms are addressed to the catechumen as a baptized church- 
member, who answers the questions of the catechist from his 
present or prospective religious experience. 

V. The Catechism of the Council of Trent (1564) is intended 
for teachers rather than pupils. It is a compendium of Roman 
Catholic theology. It contains a full exposition of the Apostles' 
Creed (Part I.), of the seven Sacraments (Part II.), of the Deca- 
logue (Part III.), and of the Lord's Prayer (Part IV.). It was 
prepared by three learned Dominicans, Leonardo Marini, Fran- 
cesco Foreiro, and iEgidius Foscarari, with the aid of other 
theologians, and published by authority of Pope Pius V. It is 
the mother of a large number of shorter, popular catechisms in 
all languages. 

* The Creed is added as an appendix, with a comment on the clause " he 
descended into hell," which is made to mean "he continued in the state of 
the dead and under the power of death until the third day." But "hell" 
in the Creed means "Hades," the spirit- world, the realm of the dead. 



504 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

VI. The standard catechisms of the Orthodox Greek and 
Russian Church, Longer and Shorter, were prepared by Philaret 
(1782-1867), Metropolitan of Moscow, revised and sanctioned 
by the Holy Synod of St. Petersburg, 1839, and published in 
all the languages of the Eussian Empire. The Longer Cate- 
chism, called "A Full Catechism," is an able and clear summary 
of Eastern orthodoxy, and is divided into three parts : (1) on 
Faith — an exposition of the Nicene Creed arranged in twelve 
articles j (2) on Hope — an exposition of the Lord's Prayer in 
seven petitions, and of the nine Beatitudes of the Sermon on 
the Mount j (3) on Love or Charity — an exposition of the Dec- 
alogue, as teaching, in two tables, love to God and love to our 
neighbor. 

If we compare these catechisms of the leading Churches of 
Christendom, it is remarkable how much more they agree than 
they differ in all the essential articles of the Christian faith and 
duty. 

CHAPTER CCLXXVI. 

CATECHETICAL LITERATURE. 

I. Cyril of Jerusalem : Catechetical Lectures, addressed to catechu- 
mens in Jerusalem in 347 and 348 (KaT?/xW £l £ (jxori^ojuevuv, translated by 
Church, with preface by J. H. Newman, in the Oxford " Library of the 
Fathers"). 

Gregory of Nyssa (d. 395) : The Great Catechism (Myog KaT7JxvTiK.bg 6 
/ueyag, translated by William Moore in Schaff and Wace's "Post-Nicene 
Library," Series II., vol. v., 1893). 

Augustin : De Catechezandis Budibus, and De Doctrina Christiana. 

II. Bishop Charles Wordsworth : Catechesis, or Christian Instruction 
Preparatory to Confirmation and First Co?nmunion (London, 1868 ; 2d ed. 
1880). 

A. J. C. Allen : Tlie Church Catechism : Its History and Contents. A 
Manual for Teachers and Students (London and New York, 1892). 

Alexander Whyte : The Shorter Catechism (Edinburgh, 1883). 

Robert Steel : The Shorter Catechism, with Proofs, Analysis, and Illus- 
trative Anecdotes (London, 1884). 

III. German works on Catechetic by Palmer (Stuttgart, 1844 ; 6th ed. 
1875), Zezschwitz (Leipzig, 1872-74), Kubel (Stuttgart, 1877), Pestalozzi 
(Zurich, 1884), Probst (R. Cath., Geschichte der katholischen Katechese, 
Breslau, 1886). 

A rich popular literature on Luther's and the Heidelberg Catechism. 



THE AMERICAN SUNDAY-SCHOOL. 505 

CHAPTER CCLXXVIL 

THE AMERICAN SUNDAY-SCHOOL. 

Catechetical instruction is the work of the pastor, and trains 
for church-membership. It ought to be supplemented but not 
superseded by lay instruction in the Sunday-school. 

The American Sunday-school is a necessary addition to every 
well-organized church. It is the church for children, who are 
little benefited by public worship and require such praying, 
singing, teaching and preaching as is adapted to their childlike 
capacity. It forms the connection between the family and the 
church. From home to school, from school to church, from 
church to heaven. The Sunday-school scholars are divided into 
groaps and instructed in the Bible and the Catechism by mem- 
bers of the congregation. The exercises are opened and closed 
by singing, prayer, and short addresses. This system gives an 
excellent opportunity to young men and women of the church 
for the exercise of their gifts for the benefit of the rising gen- 
eration. 

Robert Raikes, a pious and benevolent layman of Gloucester, 
England (1735-1811), a printer by trade, was the founder of 
the modern Anglo-American Sunday-school. Impressed by the 
need of the children in a manufacturing quarter of his city, 
he engaged in July, 1780, " four decent, well-disposed women," 
at a shilling a day each, to collect and teach children on Sunday 
in the ABC and the church catechism. He was assisted by 
Rev. Thomas Stock, the parish clergyman. In 1783 he called 
public attention to this movement in his newspaper The Glouces- 
ter Journal. This charity school became the fruitful mother of 
similar schools in England, but volunteers took the place of 
paid teachers. John Wesley incorporated the plan of Raikes 
in his religious reform movement. A Sunday-school society 
was organized in London, and multiplied schools throughout 
Great Britain in spite of the opposition of the Archbishop of 
Canterbury. A Sunday-school was organized in America in 
1786 by the Methodist Bishop Asbury, and a Sunday-school 
society was formed at Philadelphia in 1791, out of which grew 
the national American Sunday-School Union in 1824. 

In this country the Sunday-school is a vital part of the 
church itself, and is also the forerunner of the church in new 



506 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

settlements and neglected districts of large cities. It is a 
necessary supplement to the public schools, which make no 
provision for religious instruction. It is the main instru- 
mentality for the religious education of the children of the 
vast host of immigrants. From America and England the 
institution has extended to the continent of Europe and for- 
eign mission fields, and given fresh impulse to every kind of 
Christian work. It is supposed that about twenty millions 
of scholars were under the instruction of some two millions of 
Sunday-school teachers in 1890. This most benevolent and 
useful institution has 'created an immense juvenile literature 
of books and periodicals. Every denomination has, or ought 
to have, a Sunday-School Society and periodical, and every 
congregation a library for the young. The kingdom of G-od 
is built up out of the family, the catechetical class and the 
Sunday-school. 

Literature. 

L. Gr. Pray : The History of Sunday-schools and of Religious Education, 
from the Earliest Times (Boston, 1847). 

W. H. Watson : The History of the Sunday-school Union (London, 1853) ; 
Tlie First Fifty Years of the Sunday-school (1873). 

Alfred Gregory : Robert Bailees, Journalist and Philanthropist (London 
and New York, 1877). 

John H. Vincent : The Modern Sunday-school (New York, 1877) ; The 
Church, School, and the Normal Guide (1889). 

H. Clay Trumbull : Teaching and Teachers ; or, The Sunday-school 
Teacher's Teaching Work (Philadelphia, 1884) ; Yale Lectures on the Sunday- 
school (Philadelphia, 1888). 

James A. Worden : The Bible-teacher's Guide ; or, Methods of Work in 
the Sabbatli-school (Philadelphia, 1892). 

Among the periodicals which have the largest circulation among all 
denominations we mention the Sunday-school World, and the Sunday-school 
Times, both published in Philadelphia. 

Note. — The spread of Sunday-schools in Germany is due chiefly to 
the untiring activity of an American layman, Albert Woodruff (died 1891), 
who, without knowing a word of German, but aided by Mr. Broeckelmann, a 
retired merchant, traveled from city to city, and tried to persuade ministers 
and church -dignitaries of the importance of introducing Sunday-schools. 
In the following year I had occasion to follow up his labors in company 
with Mr. Broeckelmann in the chief cities of Germany and to establish 
a nourishing Sunday-school in Stuttgart. On his return he founded in 
Brooklyn " The Foreign Sunday-School Association," and devoted the rest of 
his useful life to the spread and support of Sunday-schools all over Europe 
and in mission fields. He furnishes a striking example how useful a plain 
layman may make himself in the Church by single and unselfish devotion 



PODIEXIC. . 507 

to one idea. In Germany, where catechetical instruction by the pastor is 
universal, the Sunday-school has assumed predominantly the character of 
a children's service (Kinder-Gottesdicrtst). 



CHAPTER CCLXXVIII. 

PODIEXIC (PASTORAL THEOLOGY). 

Poimenic (adopted by Van Oosterzee, Yon Zezschwitz and Achelis) is 
derived from ttoiju^v, pastor, shepherd, -oi/uaivu, to tend a flock, to rule, to 
nourish. The term "shepherd" is applied to God, to Christ, and to his 
ministers (Ps. 23 : 1 ; Ez. 37 : 24 ; John 10 : 16 ; 21 : 15-17 ; 1 Peter 2 : 25 ; 
Eph. 4: 11, etc.). Pastoral Theology. — TJieologie Pastorale. — Pastoralthe- 
ologie ; Tlieorie cler kircldiclien Seelsorge. 

Poimenic or Pastoral Theology embraced originally the 
whole field of Practical Theology, bnt in the narrower modern 
sense it means the theory of pastoral care. It deals with the 
duties of the minister in his personal relations to the members 
of his parish as their spiritual guide. Pastoral visitation is, 
next to preaching, the greatest means of the usefulness of a 
minister. As preacher he instructs, exhorts and comforts from 
the pulpit ; as pastor he meets them at home and in their daily 
occupations, administers to them spiritual counsel and comfort 
in time of need, especially in seasons of affliction. 

Poimenic gives directions to the minister in dealing with dif- 
ferent classes, the young and the old, the rich and poor, the 
sick and the dying, and his duty to the masses outside of the 
church. 

Literature. 

The Poimenic literature is closely connected ■with Homiletic, which has 
been mentioned in chapter cclxxiii. 

Special -works by Gregory I. (Pegula Pastor alis), Burgon, Patrick Fair- 
bairn, W. G. Blaikie, Yinet {Tlieologie pastorale. 1854, translated by Thos. 
H. Skinner). Kidder. Shedd (in connection with his Horn iletics, 1864; 8th 
ed. 1884), Hoppin (1885). 

German works by Palmer (1860), Kiibel (1874), Schweizer (1875), Stein- 
meyer (1878), Walther (St. Louis, 1885). 

One of the most useful treatises is Richard Baxter's Gildas Sylvanus; 
or. The Reformed Pastor (1656). John Wesley made the reading of it one 
of the duties of his lay preachers. 

It is very helpful for ministers to study the biographies of model pas- 
tors, such as Baxter, Spener, Franeke, John Wesley, Oberlin, Claus Harms 



508 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC." 

of Kiel, Louis Harms of Hermannsburg, Lohe, John H. Wichern, Chal- 
mers, MacCheyne, Barnes, Lyman Beecher, Spurgeon. 

For a list of Koman Catholic works on Pastoral Theology see Kihn, 
pp. 469 sq. 

CHAPTER CCLXXIX. 

LITURGIC. 

AeiTovpyia (from lelrog, Itjltoq, 2,a6g 7 leug, and epyov) means public ser- 
vice {munus publicum) ; in the New Testament a sacred ministration, 
Luke 1 : 23 ; Phil. 2 : 19 ; Heb. 8:6; 9 : 21 ; leirovpyog, an administrant or 
servant, Rom. 13 : 6 ; ?ieirovpyeo) 7 to officiate as priest, Heb. 10 : 11 ; to min- 
ister in the Christian Church, Acts 13 : 2. 

The derivation from Turf], lirai, preces, whence the word litany, is er- 
roneous. 

Liturgic is the theory of public worship (kazpsla, cultus). 

Worship is the highest spiritual act of man and the nearest 
approach he can make to the Deity. It embraces prayer with 
its various forms of adoration, petition, intercession, thanks- 
giving and praise ; singing ; reading of the Scriptures ; preach- 
ing of the gospel ; confession of sin and of faith ; benediction ; 
and the administration of the sacraments. The holy communion 
is the culmination of worship. 

A complete system of Liturgic comprehends all these acts of 
devotion, discusses their nature, aim and proper order, and 
includes an account of sacred places and sacred seasons, espe- 
cially the Church year. It describes the different modes of wor- 
ship : the Greek, Latin, Anglican, Lutheran, and Reformed. 

Homiletic and Catechetic are usually omitted from Liturgic, 
and separately treated. 

CHAPTER CCLXXX. 

LITURGICAL LITERATURE. 

I. Collections : 

H. A. Daniel (d. 1871 ; the most learned Lutheran liturgist) : Codex 
Liturgicus Ecclesiw Universal in Epitomen Eedactus (Leipzig, 1847-53, 4 
vols. ; vol. i. contains the Roman, vol. ii. the Lutheran, vol. iii. the Re- 
formed, vol. iv. the Oriental Liturgies). 

Fr. J. Mone (Roman Catholic) : Lateinisclw und Griechische Messen aus 
dem 2ten Ms Qten Jalirliundert (Frankf urt-a-M. , 1850; with valuable trea- 
tises on the Gallican, African, and Roman Mass). 

J. M. Neale (d. 1866 ; the most learned Anglican ritualist and liturgist, 
who studied the Eastern liturgies daily for thirty years, and almost knew 



WORSHIP AND ART. 509 

them by heart) : Tetralogia Liturgica ; sine S. Chrysostomi, S. Jacobi, S. 
Marci Divince Missw ; quibus accedit or do Mozarabicus (London, 1849). The 
same : The Liturgies of S. Mark, S. James, S. Clement, S. Chrysostom, S. Basil, 
or according to the use of the Churches of Alexandria, Jerusalem, Constanti- 
nople (London, 1859 ; in the Greek with an English translation and an intro- 
duction and appendices). 

C. E. Hammond : Ancient Liturgies (Oxford and London, 1878). 

C. A. Swainson : TJie Greek Liturgies (Cambridge, 1884). 

The Greek Menem in 12 vols. 

The Missale Bomanum in many Latin editions. — The Bontificale Bom. 
in 3 vols. — The Breviarium Bomanum, Eng. translation by John Marquis 
of Bute (Edinburgh and London, 1879, 2 vols.). 

Older liturgical collections by Goar, 1647, Assemani, 1749-66 (13 vols.), 
Muratori, 1748 (2 vols.). 

II. Works on the theory of worship : 

H. A. Kostlin : Geschichte des christlichen Gottesdienstes (Freiburg i.B., 
1887). 

TJie Christian Antiquities of Bingham, Binterim, Siegel, Smith and 
Cheetham, Bennett, quoted on p. 280. 

On the Anglican Liturgy, see the works of Procter, Blunt, Butler, 
Luckock, and W. R. Huntington (1893). For the American changes see 
Bishop White's Memoirs, and the Proceedings of the General Convention 
of the Protestant Episcopal Church, held at Baltimore, 1892. 



CHAPTER CCLXXXi. 

WORSHIP AND ART. 

Worship is closely related to art and calls it into the service 
of religion. There is a sacred architecture, sacred sculpture, 
sacred painting", sacred poetry, and sacred music, and all have 
a history full of deep interest. 

God is the author of beauty, as well as of truth and good- 
ness. There can be no more essential antagonism between re- 
ligion and art than between religion and science. All emanate 
alike from God and must return to God in harmony. 

It is true that religion is independent of art. It can even 
dispense with church buildings and chapels. God may be 
worshiped anywhere and at all times. Christ prayed and 
preached on the mountain, under the canopy of heaven, as well 
as in the synagogue and in the temple. And for three hundred 
years, and often since, in times of persecution, the Christians 
held their services in the humblest places. But the regular 
public worship requires certain fixed seasons and buildings. 

With the progress of the Church and civilization, all the fine 



510 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

arts were drawn into the service of devotion. Poetry and 
music were from the beginning intimately connected with wor- 
ship, and form an important part of Liturgic. 



CHAPTER CCLXXXIL 

HYMNOLOCY. 

Hymnology is the theory of sacred poetry as a part of public 
worship. In close connection with it is the theory of sacred 
music. Both are sanctioned in the Bible. "Sing unto the 
Lord a new song : sing unto the Lord, all the earth " (Ps. 96 : 1). 
" Admonish one another with psalms and hymns and spiritual 
songs " (Col. 3 : 16 ; Eph. 5:19). 

Poetry and Music are twin sisters of heavenly descent, and 
the highest and most spiritual of the fine arts. They are hand- 
maids of religion, and give wings to devotion. More than one 
third of the Old Testament is poetry : the Psalter, the Book of 
Job, the Proverbs, the Song of Songs, and the greater part of 
the prophetical literature, besides a number of lyric songs 
scattered through the historical books. The Psalter was the 
hymn- and tune-book of Israel ; it passed into the worship of 
the Christian Church and assumed a new and deeper meaning 
in the light of the gospel salvation. The advent of Christ was 
preceded and accompanied by sacred poetry. The Magnificat of 
the Virgin Mary, the Benedicttis of Zacharias, the Gloria in JEx- 
celsis of the angelic host, and the Nunc Dimittis of Simeon are 
the last of Hebrew psalms and the first of Christian hymns. 
They struck the keynote for the history of Christian hymnody. 

A hymn is a popular lyric poem on a religious theme adapted 
for singing. It is prayer and praise in the Sunday language 
of poetry. It differs from other forms of lyric poetry, as the 
ode, the elegy, the ballad, and the sonnet, by its simple, pure 
and melodious language, and its adaptation to music. It is to 
the church what the folk-song ( VolJcslied) is to the nation. It 
is the highest flower of Christian life arrayed in a festal garb 
of beauty. It gives expression to the deepest feelings and 
highest aspirations of the human heart, and is one of the most 
powerful helps to private and public devotion. A genuine 
hymn never grows old. The Gloria in Excelsis and the Te Deum 



HISTORY OF HYMNODY. 511 

will be sung to the end of time with undiminished fervor and 
delight. 

Hymns, like the Bible, are not sectarian, but truly Christian 
and catholic. They belong to the whole Church. They repre- 
sent the unity of the faith and the communion of saints. This 
is especially true of the hymns on Christ, the common object of 
worship to all Christians, before whom the discords of rival 
theologies and rival Churches are hushed into silence. 

A student for the ministry, and every Christian as well, should 
store the memory with the choicest hymns and Bible pas- 
sages. They will be to them an unfailing source of comfort, 
especially in lonely hours, in the night watches, on journeys, 
and in seasons of affliction. Hymns drive away melancholy 
and evil spirits. They are angels or ministering spirits " sent 
forth to do service for the sake of them that shall inherit 
salvation " (Heb. 1 : 14). 

CHAPTER CCLXXXIII. 

HISTORY OF HYMNODY. 

The history of hymnody is one of the most interesting 
branches of Church History, and equally important for the 
development of worship and Christian life, but has only of late 
begun to be cultivated. It is like a garden filled with fragrant 
flowers. It exhibits piety in its purest forms. Many hymns 
have a rich history of their own, which is written in the biogra- 
phies of saints. 

I. Greek hymnody. It began with an amplified Gloria in 
Excelsis (Luke 2 : 14), and reached its classical period during 
the Iconoclastic Controversy between 650 and 820. Pliny 
wrote to Trajan, at the beginning of the second century, that 
the Christians were in the habit on Sunday, early in the morn- 
ing, of singing songs to Christ as their God. Clement of Alex- 
andria wrote a poem of praise to Christ as the Shepherd of chil- 
dren. The hymns of the post-Nicene age celebrate the Holy 
Trinity, the Incarnation, and the great Church festivals, but also 
the worship of the Virgin Mary, the martyrs and saints, and 
the sacred icons, in a manner that offends Protestant taste. 
They are incorporated in the ritual books, especially the twelve 
volumes of Mencea, which contain the daily devotions and cor- 



512 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

respond to the Latin Breviary. The Greek hymns, like the 
Psalms, are written in rhythmical prose for chanting. The 
chief hymnists are Gregory Nazianzen (d. 390), Anatolins (d. 
458), St. John of Damascus (d. after 750), his friend and fellow- 
monk St. Cosmas of Jerusalem, called " the Melodist " (d. 760), 
St. Theophanes (d. 820), Andrew of Crete (d. 732), Stephen of 
Marsaba (d. 794). The last is well known to English readers 
by Neale's free reproduction of his touching expansion of the 
Saviour's invitation, " Come unto me " : 

" Art thou weary, art thou languid." 

Ephraem Syrus (d. 378) is the father of Syriac hymnody. 
II. Latin hymnody may be divided into three periods : 

(1) The patristic period extends from Hilary (d. 368) and Am- 
brose (d. 397) to Venantius Fortunatus (d. 609) and Pope Greg- 
ory I. (d. 604). Its most precious legacy to the Church uni- 
versal is the Te Deum Laudamus, popularly ascribed to Ambrose 
of Milan, but of later date. Augustin informs us how deeply he 
was moved by the hymns and canticles in the church of Milan : 
" Those strains flowed into mine ears, and the truth distilled 
into my heart. My feelings of piety were enkindled, and tears 
fell from my eyes." Prudentius (d. 409) was the best hymn 
writer of Spain. Fortunatus of Poitiers in France is the 
author of the famous musical passion hymns : Vexilla Regis pro* 
deunt, and Pange, lingua, gloriosi proelium certaminis. 

(2) From the second period, extending to the twelfth century, 
we have two famous pente costal hymns, of uncertain author- 
ship, addressed to the Holy Spirit : Vent, Creator Spiritus, and 
Veni, Sancte Spiritus. Notker Balbulus of St. Gall (840-912) is 
the father of the sequences in rhythmic prose (e.g., Media in 
vita in morte sumus, " In the midst of life we are in death"). 

(3) The third period embraces the greatest Latin hymnists, as 
Bernard of Morlaix (monk of Cluny, about 1150), Bernard of 
Clairvaux (d. 1153), Adam of St. Victor (d. 1192), Bonaventura 
(d. 1274), Thomas Aquinas' (d. 1274), Thomas a Celano (about 
1250), Jacopone (d. 1306). It produced the best Catholic 
hymns, some of which have been received into the Breviary 
and the daily devotions of the priests. The Jesu, dulcis memoria 
is the sweetest, the Stdbat Mater the most pathetic, the Dies 
Irm the most sublime, hymn in the Latin or any language. 
They have been often translated and imitated, but never 



HISTORY OF HYMNODY. 513 

equaled. It must be added, however, that the mediaeval hym- 
nody of the Latin, as well as of the Greek Church, abounds in 
Mariolatry and hagiolatry. Some hymns virtually put the Vir- 
gin in the place of Christ as the fountain of all grace. 

III. German hymnody is the richest of all, and numbers 
more than a hundred thousand hymns, of which more than one 
thousand have outlived their generation. The German hymns 
before the Reformation were translations from the Latin. 
Luther struck the keynote of evangelical hymnody with his 
triumphant paean of the Reformation, 

"JE'm'/esfe Burg ist wiser Gott." 

For a sketch of German hymnody I must refer to my article 
in Julian's Dictionary of Hymnology (pp. 412-419). 

IV. English hymnody. The Churches of England and Scot- 
land, like the Reformed Churches on the Continent, for nearly 
two hundred years used metrical versions of the Psalms and 
Scripture Paraphrases in public worship. Sternhold and Hop- 
kins (1551), Rouse (1646), Tate and Brady (1696). 

The fathers of English hymnody are Bishop Ken (d. 1711) r 
the author of a morning and evening hymn, with the classical 
doxology, " Praise God from whom all blessings flow " ; Isaac 
Watts, an Independent minister (1674-1748), who furnished the 
richest supply for English hymnals ; and Charles Wesley (1708- 
88), who wrote over five thousand lyric pieces, of which the 
most popular is u Jesus, Lover of my soul." His brother, John 
(1703-91), was also no mean poet, and a translator of German 
hymns. Methodism was sung into the hearts of the people. 
But the Calvinistic Toplady (1740-78) equaled any of the Meth- 
odist hymns by his immortal 

"Rock of Ages, cleft for me."' 

The second period of English hymnody dates from the 
"Olney Hymns," the joint production of John Newton and 
William Cowper (a genuine poet), first published in 1779, and 
ends with Bishop Heber's missionary hymn, "From Green- 
land's icy mountains" (1827). 

The third period dates from the Oxford revival of Anglo- 
Catholicism, and is marked by John Keble, the author of the 
"Christian Year" (1827); J. H. Newman, who wrote his ex- 
quisite "Lead, kindly Light" in an orange boat sailing from 



514 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Palermo to Marseilles (1883), twelve years before his secession 
to Rome ; F. W. Faber (" O gift of gifts ! grace of faith ! ") ; 
and by John Mason Neale, the most snccessfnl reproducer of 
Greek and Latin hymns. Miss Winkworth, Miss Cox, Arthur 
J. Russell, and Massie have added translations of many German 
hymns, from Luther down to Spitta. 

Churchmen and Dissenters of all schools, from Calvinism 
and Anglo- Catholicism to Unitarianism, have contributed to 
this treasury of devotion. 

The Scotch have longest adhered to the exclusive use of 
the Psalms in divine worship. Horatius Bonar (1808-89) is a 
most prolific and popular Scottish hymnist, although he would 
not permit any of his hymns to be sung in his church. He 
wrote, " I heard the voice of Jesus say," "I was a wandering 
sheep," and " Beyond the smiling and the weeping." Miss Jane 
Bothwick and her sister Sarah Findlater, of the Free Church, 
who published Hymns from the Land of Luther, have enriched 
English hymnody by choice reproductions of German hymns 
among which Schmolke's " My Jesus, as Thou wilt " has become 
a universal favorite in America. 

V. American hymnody follows closely that of England and 
Scotland, and has added hymns which will live, such as, "I 
love thy kingdom, Lord" by Dr. Timothy Dwight (d. 1817); 
" My faith looks up to thee," and " Jesus, thou joy of loving 
hearts " by Ray Palmer (d. 1887) ; " Softly now the light of 
day" by George W. Doane (d. 1859) ; " Trembling before thine 
awful throne " by Augustus L. Hillhouse (d. 1859); "Gently, 
Lord, gently lead us," and "Saviour, I look to thee" by 
Thomas Hastings (d. 1872) ; " I would not live alway," and 
" Like Noah's weary dove " by William Augustus Muhlenberg 
(d. 1877) ; " One sweetly solemn thought " by Phoebe Cary 
(d. 1871); "O where are kings and empires now?" and 
" When o'er Judea's vales and hills " by Arthur C. Coxe 
(b. 1818) ; " Stand up, stand up for Jesus " by George Dufneld 
(d. 1888); "More love to thee, Christ" by Mrs. Elizabeth 
Prentiss (d. 1878) ; l l Jesus, I live to thee" by Henry Harbaugh 
(d. 1867) ; "At the door of mercy sighing" by Thomas McKel- 
lar (b. 1 812) ; " O deem not, they are blessed alone " by W. C. 
Bryant (d. 1878) ; " Jesus, Saviour, pilot me " by E. Hopper 
(d. 1890) ; " Immortal Love ! forever full " by John G. Whittier, 
the Quaker poet (d. 1892) ; " O Love Divine that stooped to 



HYMXOLOGICAL LITERATURE. 515 

share " by Oliver Wendell Holmes ; and the patriotic hymn of 
Samuel F. Smith, " My country, 'tis of thee," written in 1832. 
James W. Alexander (d. 1859) deserves a place among the best 
translators of German hymns, especially of Paul Gerhardt's 
u O sacred Head, now wounded." The same is true of Dr. 
Thomas C. Porter. 

The English and American hymnody now numbers nearly 
50,000 hymns, and is likely to increase faster in the future 
than the German hymnody. 

VI. We have no space for the French, Dutch, Scandinavian, 
and Bohemian hymnody. The French Protestants still use 
Clement Marot's psalter, finished by Beza (1541, 1562, etc.), with 
Goudimel's sweet music. Modern French hymnody dates from 
Cesar Malan of Geneva (1787-1864), who wrote about one 
thousand hymns and composed several popular tunes. He was 
followed by Alexander Vinet, Adolphe Monod, Ami Bost, 
H. Empaytaz, Merle d'Aubigne, Felix Xeff, Henri Lutteroth. 



CHAPTER CCLXXXIV. 

HYMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE. 

I. Collections : 

Wilhelm Christ and M. Paraxtkas : Anthologia G-rceca Carminum 
ChrisUanorum (Lips. 1871). The Greek text with Latin Prolegomena. 

H. A. Daniel (d.' 1871) : Thesaurus Hymnologicus (Lips. 1811-56, 5 torn. ; 
vols, i., ii., iv., and v. contain Latin, vol. iii. Greek and Syrian hymns). 

F. J. Moxe : Lateinische Hymnen (Freiburg i.B., 1853, 3 vols.). 

J. M. Xeale : Hymns of the Eastern Church (London, 1862; new ed. 
1876) ; Mediaeval Hymns and Sequences (London, 1862; 3d ed. 1867). Sev- 
eral of these free versions have passed into all modern English hymn- 
books. 

Edward Caswall (Anglican ; joined the Eoman Church in 1847 ; 
d. 1878): Lyra Catholica, containing all the Breviary and Missal Hymns, to- 
gether with Some Other Hymns (London, 1849; New York, 1851; admirable 
translations). 

Philip Wackernagel (d. 1877) : Das deutsche Kirchenlied von der dltes- 
ten Zeit bis sum Anfang des xvii. Jahrltunderts (Leipzig. 1864-77, 5 vols. ; 
the last vol. edited by his two sons). A monumental collection of older 
German hymns ; the first volume contains Latin hymns and sequences 
from the fourth to the sixteenth century. 

Albert Kxapp : Evangelischer Liederschatz (Stuttgart, 3d ed. 1885). 

Philip Schaff: Christ in Song; Hymns of Immanuel Selected from All 
Ages, with Xotes (Xew York, 1868; London, 1879). Schaff and Gilmax : 
A Library of Religious Poetry (Xew York and London, 1884). 



516 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Of the numerous German hymn-books in use may be mentioned that 
of Philip Schaff : Beutsches Gesang- und Choralbuch, with notes on the 
authors, value and history of the hymns (Philadelphia and Cleveland, 
1859; revised and enlarged, 1874, etc.). 

II. Historical works on hymnology : 

John Julian : A Dictionary of Hymnology, setting forth the Origin and 
History of Christian Hymns of all Ages and Nations (London and New York, 
1892, 616 pp.). The best general work on hymnology in the English or 
any other language, with contributions from a large number of specialists. 

1. The Poetry of the Bible by Philip Schaff in his Literature and 
Poetry (New York, 1890, pp. 63-133). The literature is given on pp. 131- 
133. The principal writers on Hebrew poetry are Lowth, Herder, and 
Ewald. 

2. On Greek hymnology : Philip Schaff : Church History, vol. iii., pp. 
575 sqq. ; vol. iv., pp. 402 sqq., and the literature there quoted. 

3. On Latin hymnology : Trench : Sacred Latin Poetry (London, 2d ed. 
1864). Schaff, Church Hist., vol. iii., pp. 585 sqq., and vol. iv., pp. 416 
sqq. Special discussions of the Dies Lrw, Stabat Mater, and St. Bernard's 
Hymns, in his Literature and Poetry (New York, 1890), pp. 134-255. 

S. W. Duffield : The Latin Hymn- Writers and Their Hymns (New York, 
1889). 

4. On German hymnology : Ed. Emil Koch : Geschichte des Kirchenlieds 
und JLirchengesangs in der christlichen, insbesondere der deutschen evangel- 
ischen Kirche (Stuttgart, 3d ed. revised and enlarged, 1866-76, 8 vols. ; vol. 
viii. by R. Lauxmann). 

C. A. Beck : Geschichte des hatholischen Kirchenliedes von seinen ersten 
Anfdngen bis auf die Gegenwart (Koln, 1878). 

A. F. W. Fischer : Kir chenlieder -Lexicon (Gotha, 1878-79, 2 vols. ; supple- 
ment, 1886, contains an alphabetical list of 4500 hymns with literary notes). 

5. On English hymnology : 

Josiah Miller: Singers and Songs of the Church (London, 1869). 

E. F. Hatfield (d. 1883) : TJie Poets of the Church (New York, 1884). 

S. W. Duffield : English Hymns ; TJieir Authors and History (New York, 
1884). 

Also Julian, above quoted, and H. S. Burrage : Baptist Hymn- Writers; 
Hutter : The Annotated Methodist Hymnal; James King : Anglican Hym- 
nology. 

The Union Theological Seminary in New York has a rich hymnological 
library, especially of English and American hymn-books, including over 
three hundred volumes purchased from Daniel Sedwick in London, and the 
collections of Hatfield (presented) and Bird (bought). 



EVANGELISTIC. 517 

CHAPTER CCLXXXV. 

EVANGELISTIC. 

Evangelistic is a new term for a new science, from evayyelifa, or evayye- 
HC,oixat, evangelizo (Vulg.), to evangelize, to bring glad tidings (of the Mes- 
sianic blessings, of the Christian salvation), often nsed in the Septuagint 
and the Greek Testament. The term evayyeliarrjg, evangelista (Vulg.), 
a bringer of good tidings, is given to the heralds of salvation through Christ, 
or itinerant preachers who were not apostles, but acted under their direc- 
tion in different places, such as" Philip, Timothy, Titus, Silas, Luke (Acts 
21 : 8 ; Eph. 4 : 11 ; 2 Tim. 4:5). Every apostle is an evangelist, but not 
every evangelist is an apostle. The same term was used afterwards for 
the writers of the four canonical Gospels. 

Evangelistic is the science of Missions (Missionswissenschaft), 
that is, of the propagation of Christianity at home and abroad. 
It is a new branch of theological learning, demanded by the 
growing zeal in missions. 

Christianity is a missionary religion and looks to the conver- 
sion of the world. Christ commanded his disciples to preach 
the gospel to every creature and to make disciples of all na- 
tions* In connection with this command he said: "All au- 
thority has been given unto me in heaven and on earth." He 
illustrates the progress of the kingdom of heaven by the twin 
parables of the mustard-seed and the leaven.f 

The missionary activity of the Church embraces the follow- 
ing divisions : 

I. Missions among the heathen or idolaters : barbarian, semi- 
civilized and civilized. 

II. Missions among the Jews. 

III. Missions among the Mohammedans. 

IV. Home Missions in neglected parts of Christian countries 
and among immigrants. Especially important in America. 

V. Inner Mission. In Germany (since Wichern) it includes 
the revival of dead Christianity, and philanthropic and benevo- 
lent institutions. Young Men's Christian Associations, Chris- 
tian Endeavor Societies, etc. The labors of Moody, and other 
evangelists. 

* Mark 16 : 15 ; Matt. 28 : 19, comp. Matt. 24 : 14 ; Luke 24 : 47 ; Rom. 
11 : 25. 

t Matt. 13 : 31-33. 



518 THEOLOGICAL PROPAEDEUTIC. 

VI. City Missions. A special branch of Home and Inner 
Missions among the modern heathen and barbarians of large 
cities, as London, New York and Berlin. Here belongs also 
the remarkable work of the Salvation Army, founded by Will- 
iam Booth and his noble wife in 1865, a sort of aggressive mil- 
itary Christianity, impelled by a truly apostolic spirit, and 
followed with rich results in the English-speaking world. 

There is a reciprocal influence between these different mission 
fields. Zeal for one stirs up zeal for another. One of the 
greatest blessings of foreign Missions is their inspiring effect 
upon the Churches at home. 

CHAPTER CCLXXXVI. 

EPOCHS OF MISSIONS. 

I. Apostolic Missions. The planting of Christianity from 
Jerusalem to Eome among Jews, Greeks and Romans. Peter, 
the apostle of the Jews ; Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles. 

II. Ante-Nicene period. Spread of Christianity amid per- 
secution in the Roman Empire, especially in Syria, Egypt, 
Italy and southern Europe. Hindrances : hostility of the Jews 
and Gentiles ; slanderous reports ; novelty ; poverty and ob- 
scurity; a crucified founder; apparent want of patriotism. 
Helps : the perfect teaching and example of Christ ; moral 
and spiritual power; regenerating and sanctifying influence; 
rationality of doctrines ; the universality and adaptability of 
Christianity ; compact church organization ; the testimony of 
miracles and prophecy; the order and unity of the Roman 
Empire, and the prevalence of the Greek language and culture ; 
the destruction of Jerusalem ; the moral corruption and hope- 
less decay of the heathen religion. "Christ appeared," says 
Augustin, " to the men of a decrepit, decaying world, that while 
all around them was withering away, they might through him 
receive new, youthful life." 

The total number of Christians in the Roman Empire at the 
beginning of the fourth century was, perhaps, nearly ten mill- 
ions — that is, about one tenth or one twelfth of the estimated 
population of the empire. According to Chrysostom, the 
Christian population of Antioch in the year 380 was about 
100,000, or one half of the whole. 



EPOCHS OF MISSIONS. 519 

III. Post-Nicene period. After the conversion of Constan- 
tine, the emperors aided the Church in the overthrow of pa- 
ganism, which was completed in the fifth and sixth centuries. 
This triumph, however, was not achieved without great sac- 
rifice of the purity of the Church. The conversion was to a 
large extent merely nominal, while heathen corruptions and 
practices continued. 

IV. Missions in the Middle Ages. Conversion and civiliza- 
tion of the barbarians of central and western Europe, Celtic, 
Germanic, and Slavonic, by monks and priests mostly under the 
direction of the Bishop of Rome and with the aid of the civil 
and military power. The Irish missionaries were distinguished 
for zeal and independence. Ireland was called " the island of 
saints." 

St. Patrick, the apostle of Ireland, Columba, the apostle of 
Scotland, Augustin, the apostle of England, Columbanus and 
Boniface, the apostles of Germany, Ansgar, the apostle of 
Denmark, Cyril and Methodius, the apostles of the Bulga- 
rians. The conversion of Catholic France was determined by 
King Clovis after the victory of Tolbiac (496). Charles Martel 
gave effectual aid to Boniface (750). Charles the Great con- 
verted the rebellious Saxons by force (785). His example was 
the beginning of a crusade for the overthrow of heathenism, 
contrary to the spirit of the gospel and against the protest 
of Alcuin, who with all his admiration for the great emperor 
maintained that instruction, persuasion and love were the only 
proper means for converting the heathen. The crusaders tried 
to convert or to subdue the Mohammedans by the sword, but 
failed. The Sultan still holds the key to the Holy Sepulchre, 
and rules and ruins the once flourishing lands of the Bible. 

Russia received her Christianity from the Greek Church by 
military command of Grand-Duke Vladimir, called "Isapos- 
tolos " (980-1015), who sent his subjects into the river Dnieper, 
while the priests read prayers from the cliffs on the shore. The 
greatest wholesale water baptism in history, "wonderfully curi- 
ous and beautiful to behold," says Nestor, the Russian monk 
and annalist. 

V. Spain and Portugal, which had the supreme command at 
sea in the fifteenth century, discovered and settled Central and 
South America, and added them to the domain of the papacy. 
The conversion of the Indians was brought about by Dominican, 



520 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Franciscan, and Jesuit monks, with the aid of the civil power 
and in the same spirit which prevailed in the Middle Ages 
towards the barbarians. The sword was more powerful than 
the cross. The work was darkened by fearful cruelty against 
the natives ; but the noble spirit of Las Casas, the friend and 
emancipator of the Indians, rises far above his gold-seeking 
contemporaries. 

The French Canadians are likewise Roman Catholics, de- 
scended from the settlers in the seventeenth century. The 
labors of the French Jesuits among the Indians are distin- 
guished for heroic self-denial, but had little success. 

These American conquests made up, numerically, for the 
losses in Europe which the Roman Church sustained by the 
Reformation. 

VI. Rome has carried on her missionary operations without 
interruption, and in the same spirit, to this day in all heathen 
lands. They are under the direction of the Congregatio de Propa- 
ganda Fide, which was founded bv Gregory XV., a pupil of the 
Jesuits (1622), and has its seat in Rome. Its chief organ is the 
Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, published at Lyons, and 
elsewhere in different languages. The 'greatest missionary of 
the Roman Church is the Jesuit Francis Xavier, " the apostle of 
the Indians," and patron of Catholic missions (1506-52), who 
with the authority of the Pope and the King of Portugal carried 
on a most successful mission in East India and Japan, and was 
only prevented by his death from entering into China. Among 
the latest missionaries of the Roman faith is Cardinal Lavigerie 
(d. 1893), the benefactor of dark Africa, who figures most 
prominently in the suppression of the African slave-trade. 

The Greek Church follows in the van of the military power 
of Russia in her conquering march eastward across the northern 
continent of Asia. 

VII. Protestantism was for a long time culpably indifferent 
to the missionary duty of the Church. The Reformers were so 
absorbed in the conflict with popery that they hardly thought 
of the heathen. Luther preached war against the Turks, and 
thought that the end of the world was near at hand. Calvin 
gave his aid to unsuccessful settlements in Brazil and Florida, 
but they were intended more for a refuge for persecuted Hugue- 
nots than for the conversion of the natives. 

The door for Protestant missions was opened by the rise of 



EPOCHS OF MISSIONS. 521 

Holland and Britain, which first disputed, then shared, and at 
last surpassed the exclusive dominion of Spain and Portugal 
over the seas, and acquired large possessions in Asia and Amer- 
ica. The Dutch East India Company was chartered in 1602, 
with an avowed subordinate purpose of converting the heathen, 
and Protestantism was forced upon the natives of Ceylon in 
1636. 

The earliest missionary efforts of England were connected 
with the colonies of North America. John Eliot (1604-90) was 
the first great missionary to the Indians in New England. He 
translated the whole Bible into an Indian dialect. The May- 
hews, Sargent, David Brainerd, and the Moravian Zeisberger 
labored in the same spirit. A corporation for " Promoting the 
Gospel of Jesus Christ in New England " was chartered in 1662, 
the " Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge " in 1698, and 
the " Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign 
Parts" in 1701. 

The British East India Company was at first hostile to mis- 
sions, but the steady progress of conquest in the eighteenth 
century resulted in the vast Indian empire under the control of 
English Christianity and civilization. 

In Germany, the missionary spirit was first awakened by the 
pietistic movement of Spener and Francke, and by the Unitas 
Fratrum, or Moravians. The latter are the pioneer mission 
Church, and have sent since 1732 to all parts of the world over 
2300 missionaries of a truly apostolic spirit, even to the most 
degraded among the heathen. The Lutheran Church followed 
very slowly in the course pointed out by Count Zinzendorf . Her 
earliest missionaries were Ziegenbalg and Schwartz (d. 1798), 
who studied in Halle and were sent by the Danish Missionary 
Society of Copenhagen to Tranquebar, in India, where they 
labored with great success. 

VIII. A new missionary era may be dated from 1792, when, 
under the inspiration of William Carey ,#the Baptist Missionary 
Society was formed. It was followed by the London Mission- 
ary Society, 1795, the Church Missionary Society, 1799, the 
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, 1810, 
the American Baptist Missionary Union, 1814, the Basel Mis- 
sionary Society, 1815, the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary 
Society, 1816 ; also the several Presbyterian, the Protestant 
Episcopal, the Baptist, the Dutch and German Reformed, the 



522 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

Episcopal Methodist, the Protestant Methodist, the Lutheran, 
and many other missionary societies in the United States and 
Canada. The total number of these societies to-day exceeds 
one hundred, mostly English, Scotch, Irish, and American. 

In the providence of God, India, China, Corea, Japan, and, 
since the explorations of Livingstone and Stanley, even the in- 
terior of Africa, in fact the whole heathen world, is now open 
to missions. The work in Japan, though scarcely begun, is 
most encouraging, and may at no distant day result in the 
conversion of that empire which has already adopted many of 
the results of Christian civilization. 

The English, Scotch, and Anglo-Americans are the richest, 
the most energetic and most successful missionary nations of 
modern times ; indeed they control the commerce of the world 
by sea and land. The extraordinary progress of missionary 
zeal and enterprise is phenomenal, and one of the greatest 
evidences for the vitality of Christianity, and an assurance of 
its ultimate triumph to the ends of the earth, in obedience to 
Christ's command and in fulfillment of his promise. 



CHAPTER CCLXXXVII. 

MISSIONARY LITERATURE. 

TJie Encyclopaedia of Missions : Descriptive, Historical, Biographical, Sta- 
tistical. Edited by Edwin Munsell Bliss (New York, 1891, 2 vols.). A 
full bibliography of Foreign Missions by Samuel Macauley Jackson is added, 
vol. i., pp. 557-661. 

G. Warneck: Evangelische Missionslehre (Gotha, 1892 sqq.). 

R. Grundemann : Missionsatlas (Gotha, 1867-70). 

I. General History of Foreign Missions : 

Theodor Christlieb : Protestant Foreign Missions, Their Present State 
(Eng. translation, London and Boston, 3d ed. 1881 ; also in German, French, 
Swedish and Norwegian). — Geo. Smith : Short History of Christian Mis- 
sions (Edinburgh, 1884; 2d ed. 1886). — W. Fleming Stevenson: The Dawn 
of Modem Missions (Edinburgh, 1887). — Gustav Warneck : Outline of the 
History of Protestant Missions (English translation, Edinburgh, 1884). — 
Edwin Hodder : Conquests of the Cross : A Record of Missionary Work 
throughout the World (London, 1890-91, 3 vols.). — J. Lowe: Medical Mis- 
sions (London, 1886; 3d ed. 1891). — G. F. Maclear : History of Christian 
Missions in the Middle Ages (London, 1860). 

In German : C. G. Blumhardt : Versuch einer allgemeinen Missions- 
geschichte der Kirche Christi (Basel, 1828-37, 5 parts). — H. Gundert : Die 
evangelische Mission, Hire Lander, Volker und Aroeiter (Calw, 1881 ; 2d ed. 



MISSIONARY LITERATURE. 523 

1886). — C. H. Kalkar : GescMchte der ehristlichen Mission unter den Heiden 
(Giitersloh, 1879). — G. E. Burckhardt : Kleine Missionsbibliothck (Biele- 
feld, 2d ed. by Grundemann, 1876 sqq.). 

II. Special Histories of Foreign Missions : 

American Board, by R. Anderson (Boston, 1870-74, 4 vols.); Baptist 
(Northern), S. F. Smith (Boston, 1879 ; 2d ed. 1883) ; (Southern), H. A. 
Tupper (Phila., 1880, continued to 1890; Richmond, Va., 1891); Metho- 
dist, J. M. Reid (New York, 1879, 2 vols.); Moravian, A. C. Thompson 
(New York, 1882) ; Presbyterian, J. C. Lowrie (New York, 1855 ; 2d ed. 
1868); Reformed Dutch, Mrs. M. E. Sangster (New York, 1887); The 
New Hebrides Mission of John G. Paton (Presbyterian), or, Thirty Years 
among South Sea Cannibals (New York, 1892). 

III. Biographies of Foreign Missionaries. Collections : 

C. D. Yonge : Pioneers and Founders (London, 1872). — W. P. Walsh : 
Modern Heroes of the Mission Field (London and New York, 1882 ; 3d ed. 
1892).— A. H. Japp: Master Missionaries (London, 1880 ; 3d ed. 1883).— 
Mrs. E. R. Pitman : Heroines of the Mission Field (London and New York, 
1881). — Mrs. F. E. Arnold-Forster : Heralds of the Cross (London, 1882 ; 
2d ed. 1885). 

IV. Individual Biographies of Foreign Missionaries : 

W. C. Burns (China), by Islay Burns (Edinburgh and New York, 1870 ; 
6th ed. 1871). — William Carey (India), by Geo. Smith (London, 1885; 2d 
ed. 1887).— Alexander Duff (India), by Geo. Smith (1879; 2d ed. 1881).— 
William Ellis (Polynesia), by J. E. Ellis (London, 1873). — William Goodell 
(Turkey), by E. D. G. Prime (New York, 1876). — James Hannington 
(Uganda), by E. C. Dawson (London and New York, 1887). — Adoniram 
Judson (Burmah), by E. Judson (New York, 1883). — Robert and Mary 
Moffat (Africa), by J. S. Moffat (London and New York, 1885 ; 6th ed. 
1887). — David Livingstone (Africa), by Samuel Smiles (London and New 
York, 1885). — Henry Martyn (Persia), by Geo. Smith (London, 1893). — 
John Coleridge Patteson (Polynesia), by Charlotte M. Yonge (London, 1874, 
2 vols.). — John Williams (Polynesia), by John Campbell (London, 1842; 
2d ed. 1843).— Samuel Wells Williams (China), by F. W. Williams (New York, 
1889).— John Wilson (India), by Geo. Smith (London, 1878; 2d ed. 1879). 
— David Zeisberger (North American Indians), by Edmund de Schweinitz 
(Philadelphia, 1870). 

V. Revivals and Inner Mission : 

Tracy: The Great Awakening (of 1740). — MacFarlane : Revivals of the 
Eighteenth Century. — Finney : Lectures on Revivals. Biographies of White- 
field, John Wesley, Jonathan Edwards, Lyman Beecher, Charles G. Finney, 
Wichern. 

VI. The work of "the Salvation Army," and missions among the heathen 
in Christian lands : 

General William Booth (founder of the Army) : Aggressive Christian- 
ity (London, 1882; 5th ed. 1890); In Darkest England and the Way Out 
(1890).— Ballington Booth: New York's Inferno (New York, 1893). — 
Also Mrs. Catherine Booth (wife of General W. Booth, and one of the 
most remarkable and useful women of the nineteenth century, d. 1892) : 
Popular Christianity (1890) ; and her biography, by Booth-Tucker (1893, 
2 vols.). The Salvation Army publishes the weekly "War Cry" and the 



524 THEOLOGICAL PROPEDEUTIC. 

monthly "Conqueror," which have obtained in a short time an enormous 
circulation. 

I recommend the study of biographies of great missionaries, as Columba, 
Boniface, Ansgar, Xavier ; Eliot, Brainerd, Zeisberger, Carey, Henry Mar- 
tyn, Judson, Moffat, Livingstone, Duff, Patteson, Hannington, Paton. 

The greatest missionary is Paul, and the most inspiring history of mis- 
sions is the Book of The Acts — the record of a spiritual conquest of souls 
and their redemption from the slavery of sin to freedom in Christ. 



TOPICAL IKDEX. 



Abelard, as rationalist, 65, 369. 

JEthiopic, 122. 

Alexander, A., 390. 

Allen, A. V. G., quoted, 381. 

America, Spanish, 285. 

sects in early, 291. 
American Church history, 285. 
American Church History Society 

literature, 294. 
Anselm, St., as to faith, 66 ; 369. 
Anthony of Padua, 482. 
Antiquities, 145. 

ecclesiastical, 248. 
Apocrypha, Jewish, 142. 
Apologetic, 309. 

necessity, 310. 

epochs, 313. 
Apostles' teachings, literature on, 

332. 
Apostolic age, 272. 
Apostolical Canons, 458. 

Constitutions, 458. 
Aquinas, T., 370. 
Arabic, 121. 
Aramaic, 108, 115, 128. 

biblical, 116. 
Arcana Ccelestia, 227. 
Archaeology, 280. 

biblical, 140. 

classified, 141, 145. 

sources, 142. 

history, 146. 

Christian, 280. 
Aristides' "Apology," 277. 
Aristotle, as to theology, 77. 
Arminianism, 374, 399. 
Arnold, E., quoted, 47, 48. 
Arnold, G., 300. 
Aryan religion, 34. 
Asceticism of St. Jerome, 431. 
Assyrian, 118. 
Athanasius, 365. 
" Auburn Declaration," 396. 
Augustin, quoted, 197, 199, 255. 

influence, 366. 

as to morals, 432. 



Bacon, quoted, 04, 91. 
Balder, 54. 

Bampton Lectures, 315. 
Baptism, validity, 394. 
Barnabas's Epistle, 277. 
Barnes, A., 396. 
Baur, F. C. von, 228, 302. 
Baxter, quoted, 476, 488. 
Beecher, H. W., 498. 
Beecher, L., 396, 498. 
Bellarmin, R., 222. 
j Bengel, quoted, 158, 233. 
i Berkeley, quoted, 285. 
Bernard, St., quoted, 233, 480. 
Berthold, 482. 
Beyschlag, as to John, 327. 
Beza, 214. 
Bible, the, 94. 

inspiration, 95. 

tributes, 97, 158. 

natural history, 144. 

various readings, 156. 

transcriptions, 158. 

in original, and the Septuagint, 
160, 161. 

authorship, 179. 

defects in Authorized Version, 
191, 193. 
Biblical criticism, 153. 
Biblical history, periods, 260, 267. 
Biblical theology, 316. 

bearings, 317. 

method, 319. 

history, 328. 
Bibriographv, i., 6, 10. 
Biel, G., 370. 
Books, Milton on, 91. 

American, 291. 
Brahminism, 43. 
Breckinridge, R. J., 394. 
Breviarium Bomanum, 509. 
Briggs, C. A., 400. 
Broad-church, 344. 
Brooks, Phillips, 499. 
Buddhism, 45, 49. 
Buddhists, number, 45. 

525 



526 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



Bunyan, 489. 
Bushnell, H., 387. 
Cajetan, Cardinal, 370. 
Calixtus, 216. 
Calvin, 484. 

as commentator, 214, 372. 

on canon law, 460. 
Calvinism, 373. 

scholastic, 374. 

five points, 389. 
Cameron, J., 378. 
Canon, theory of the, 168. 

Hebrew, 171. 

Hellenistic, 171. 

New Testament, history, 172. 

and Protestantism, 175 
Canon law, the, 459. 
Catechetic, 500. 
Catechisms, typical, 502. 
Chalmers, T., 494. 
Channing, W. E., 387. 
Carlyle, T., quoted, 269. 
Casuistical divinity, 442. 
Casuistry, 441. 
Catena Patrum, 207. 
Catholicity, 412. 

Cave, A., as to knowledge and re- 
ligion, 65. 
Census, eleventh, 28. 
Chaldee, 116. 
Christ, life of, 268. 
Christian life, history, 248. 
Christian union, 414. 
Christianity, 21, 129. 

fullness, 59. 

in U. S. A., origin and ortho- 
doxy, 290. 

distinctive feature, 291. 

among the English, 522. 
Christocentric, 241, 358, 364, 398. 
Chronology, ecclesiastical, 243. 
Chrysostom, 479. 
Church, 130, 455. 

organization, 246. 

law, 457. 

polity, 463. 

Church and State as related, 467, 
469. 
Church ethic, history, 428, 439. 
Church history, 244. 

written sources, 251. 

unwritten sources, 253. 

uses, 258. 

periods, 259. 

Christian, periods, 261. 
Church's development, the, 240. 
Cicero, on relegere, 18. 

quoted, 259. 
Classics, study of, 123. 



Clement's Epistles and Syriac ver- 
sion, 277. 
Codex, Vatican, 162. 

Sinaiticus, 276. 

Lipsiensis, 277. 
Codices of New Testament, 164, 

172. 
Coleridge, on Channing, 387. 
Columbus, 285. 
Commentaries, exhaustive, 196. 

popular, 197. 

Eoman Catholic of 17th cen- 
tury, 222. 

by the English, 229. 

American, 229. 
Confessions, 406. 
Confucianism, 41. 
Congregational Creed of 1883, 386. 
Conversion, 312. 

Co-operative societies of to-day, 415. 
Corpus Juris Canonici, 459, 461. 
Council of Trent, 175. 
Councils, history, 247. 
Cranmer, 485. 
Creationism, 395. 
Creeds, revision, politically, 389. 

nature of, 406. 

authority, 407. 

classified, 408. 

historically, 410. 
Critici Sacri, 216, 220. 
Criticism, literary, 153. 
Culture, mental and moral, 3. 
Cyprian and sacerdotalism, 86. 
Dabney, E. L., 394. 
Be Civitate Dei, 432. 
De Officiis Ministrorum, 430. 
Denominations, number, 336. 
Denominationalism, useful, 413. 
Descartes, 81. 

Biatessaron, Tatian's, 270, 277. 
Dickinson, B., 396. 
Dickinson, J., 388. 
Bidaehe, the, 278. 
Diplomatic, ecclesiastical, 243. 
Divine sovereignty, 399. 
Dogma, history, 249. 
Dogmatic, content, 333. 

sources, 334. 

biblical, 335. 

confessional, 336. 

Greek, 337. 

Eoman Catholic, 338. 

Lutheran, 339. 

Eeformed and Calvinistic, 342. 

Anglican, 344. 

Arminian, 346. 

Socinian, 348. 

rationalistic, 350. 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



527 



Dogmatic, Evangelical Union, 352. 

Ritschl, 355, 360. 

speculative, 360. 

Christocentrie, 362. 

Patristic, 364. 

Augustinian, 368. 

Scholastic, 368. 

Reformation, 371. 

Calvinistic, in America, 376. 

New England, 377. 

Presbyterian, 388. 

Old School, 389. 

New School, 396. 

German, in America, 402. 
Dorner, on American theology, 375. 
Dualism, 31. 
Dwight, T., 384. 

" Ecclesia non sitit sanguinem," 471. 
Ecclesim, patres, doctor es, auctores, 

275. 
Ecclesiology, 455. 
Education, object, 3. 

kinds, 3. 

religious, 4. 

value, 4. 

means, 4. 

degrees, 5. 
Edwardeans, 381. 
Edwards, Jon., 378, 381. 
Edwards, Dr., 382. 
Egypt's religion, 50. 
Eloquence, 473. 
Emmons, N., 383. 
Encyclical, 7. 
Encyclopaedia, formal, i., 8. 

meaning, 6. 

theological, 9. 

divisions, 11. 

historv, 11. 
"Encyclopaedia," Schaff-Herzog, 338. 
English, roots in, 106. 
Episcopacy, congregational, 463. 

diocesan, 463. 

metropolitan, 464. 

Anglican, 465. 

papal, 465. 

Lutheran, 466. 
Episcopal Prayer-Book, 509. 
Erasmus;, quoted, 134 ; 211. 
Erigena. S., 369. 
Ethic, definitions, 422. 

Christian, 421, 423. 

contrasted with dogmatic, 422. 

philosophical, 423. 

pagan, 424. 

Protestant, history, 436. 
Eusebius, on the canon, 174. 
Evangelical Churches, confessions, 
409. 



Evangelistic, branches, 517. 
Ewald, H., on Bible, 97; 141, 228. 

on 6 Aoyog, 189. 
Exegesis, divisions, 189, 202. 

of Old and New Testaments, 197. 

historv, 199. 

Jewish, 200, 203. 

before Christ, 201. 

rabbinical, 202. 

allegorizing, 202. 

after Christ, 203. 

Christian, 204. 

patristic, 205. 

mediaeval, 207. 

of the Reformers, 212. 

Protestant, of 17th century, 215. 

Rationalistic, of 19th century, 
223. 

Swedenborgian, 226. 

evangelical, 227. 

as to history and theology, 232. 
Exegete, qualifications, 188. 
Exegetes, Greek, 205. 

Latin, 206. 
Exegetic, departments, 94. 
Exegetical sense, fourfold, 208. 

mystic, 208. 
Ezra, 201. 

legend of, 170. 
Faber, on English of the Bible, 190. 
" Faith precedes understanding," 66. 
Farel, W., 484. 
Farrar, F. W., 493. 
Fathers, the, estimated, 206. 
Feeling and piety, 71. 
Ferrer, 482. 
Fetichism, 41. 
Francis of Assisi, 481. 
Franklin, Benj., on pride, 70. 
Free-will, 380, 399. 
Fundamental theology, 93. 
Gautama, 46. 
Geibel, quoted, 85. 
Gemara, 201. 
General Assembly of Presbyterian 

Church, 394. 
Gesclrichte, 234. 
Geography, biblical, 143. 

ecclesiastical, 241, 444. 
Gibbons, Cardinal, on church and 

state, 468. 
Goethe, as to the Bible, 97. 

quoted, 188, 238. 

as to the Christian struggle, 269. 

as to Church history, 297. 

as to rules, 460. 
Greek, 123. 

dialects, 125. 

Hellenistic, 126, 128, 135. 



528 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



Greek, apostolic, 127. 

sub-apostolic, 137. 

ecclesiastical, 138. 
Greek Church Creed, 408. 
Gregory I., 480. 

as exegete, 206. 

quoted, 475. 
Gregory of Nyssa, 365. 
Guthrie, Thomas, 495. 
Hades, 395, 503. 
Haggada, 201. 
Hagiographa, 171. 
Halakha, 201. 
Hall, Eobert, 493. 
Hamilton, Wm., as to knowledge, 

356. 
Harnack, on community in theology, 

403. 
Harper, A. P., quoted, 45. 
Harper, W. E., 114. 
Hase, on earlier historians, 299. 
Heathen, Bible view, 38. 
Heathenism, 36. 
Hebrew, 105, 106, 107, 128. 

rabbinical, 116. 
Hebrew learning, history, 111. 
Heine, H., on Moses, 323. 
Helvetic Formula, 391. 
Hell, extent, 395. 
Herder, J. G., 486. 
Heresies, 250. 
Hermeneutic, definition, 186. 

aim, 187. 

philological, 194. 

theological, 195. 

homiletical, 196. 
Higher criticism, 153, 177, 184, 400. 

as to the New Testament, 181. 

as to the Old Testament, 183. 
Hippolytus, on Daniel, 276. 
Historian, duty, 254. 
History, biblical, 235. 

ecclesiastical, 235. 

agents, 236. 

progress, 239. 

secular, 243. 

art in, 257. 

spirit for, 257. 
Hodge, C, 390. 
Hof acker, L., 487. 
Homiletic, 472. 
Homiletical hints, 475. 
Hopkins, S. ; 382. 
Hopkinsianism, 382. 
Horus, 51. 
Humility, 130. 
Hymnody, Greek, 511. 

Latin, 512 

German, 513. 



Hymnody, English, 513. 

American, 514. 

French, 515. 
Hymnology, 510. 
Idolatry, 36. 

origin, 37. 
"Independent, The," 23. 
Indo-Germanic, 103. 
Inerrancy of the Bible, 392, 393. 
Infant damnation, 379. 
Inspiration, verbal, 392. 
Irenic, 412. 
Isagogic denned, 149. 

value, 150. 

classified, 151. 

history, 152. 

special, 177. 
Islam, 59. 

Israel, history, 264. 
'Iaropta, 234. 
Itala, 165. 

Jerome, St., quoted, 97, 110. 
Jesus' teaching, 325. 
John of Damascus, St., 337, 365. 
John's style, 134. 
Jonah, 40. 
Josephus, in Greek and Hebrew, 124. 

as to canon, 171. 
Judaism, 55. 

Kahnis, as to eucharist, 339. 
Kant, as to religion, 69. 
Karaites, the, 203. 
Keryctic, 473. 
Kingdom of God, 456. 
Knowledge, and humility, 4. 

and piety, 65. 
Knox, 485. 

Krummacher, F. W., 487. 
Lactantius, as to religare, 18. 
Lambeth Palace articles, 346. 
Languages, classification, 103. 
Latimer, 484. 
Latinisms, 190. 
Latitudinarianism, 220, 412. 
Le Fevre, J. 211. 
Leo I., 480. 

Lightfoot, J. B., as to Muratori, 174. 
Liturgic, 508. 
Lombard, Peter, 369. 
Luke's style, 132. 
Luther, 371, 476, 483. 

as commentator, 213. 

as theologian, 356. 

quoted, 476. 
Lutheran Church Confessions, 409. 
Lutheranism, scholastic, 373. 
Lyra, N., quoted, 207. 
Macleod, N., 495. 
Man, religious constitution, 63. 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



529 



Manichgeism, 35. 
Mark's style, 132. 
Marshall, S., 489. 
Masora, 110, 159. 
Massillon, 485. 
Matthew's style, 131. 
Melanehthon, 483. 

as exegete, 213, 340. 
Melvill, H., 492. 
Methodism, 347. 
Methodology, i., 6, 10. 
Midrash, 201. 
Milton, quoted, 91, 377. 
Ministerial call, 87. 
Ministers, indispensable, 86. 
Ministry, Christian, theory, 454. 

different offices, 454. 
Mirandola, P. a, quoted, 82. 
Mishna, 201. 
Missale Romanwm, 509. 
Missions, 518. 

history of, 244. 

ante-Nicene, 518. 

Middle Ages, 519. 

Roman, 520. 

Protestant, 521. 

modern, 521. 

histories, 523. 

biographies, 523. 

revivals, 523. 
Moabite stone, 109, 147. 
Moody, D. L., 499. 
Mohammed, 57, 58. 
Mohammedanism, 33, 57. 
Monod, A., 486. 

Monography, ecclesiastical, 294. 
Monotheism, 31, 37, 55. 
Morality, and piety, 69. 

heathen and Christian, 424, 430. 

evangelical, 426. 

ascetic, 427. 
Morals, 421. 

mediaeval, 434. 
Moses, 323. 

Mosheim, J. L. von, 485. 
Muller, M., quoted, 65. 
Music, 510. 
Mysticism, 358. 
Mythology, Roman, 53. 

Teutonic, 54. 
Natural ability, 378. 
Neander, on Christ, 269. 

to Hodge, 394. 
Nevin, J. W., 387, 390. 
New France, 287. 
" New Lights," 388. 
New School, 388. 

New Testament, writers' peculiari- 
ties, 130. 



New Testament MSS., 156. 

text sources, 163. 

cursives, 165. 

ancient translations, 165. 

received, and true text, 167. 

higher criticism, 181. 

and the Old, 320. 

theology, 325. 
Newman, J. H., on Jerome, 432. 

as preacher, 492. 
Nirvana, 47. 
Occam, W., 370. 
(Ecolampadius, J., 214. 
"Old Lights," 388. 
Old School, 388. 
Old Testament, sources of text, 159. 

origin of, 170. 

higher criticism, 183. 

and the New, 320. 

periods of theology, 321. 
Origen, quoted, 95. 

as to "Hebrews," 180. 

as exegete, 205. 
Orthodoxy among peoples, 374. 
Pedagogic, 500. 
Paganism, 36. 

classical, 52. 
Pantheism, 31. 
Paraphrase, 190. 
Park, E. A., 385, 498. 
Pascal, quoted, 66. 
Patristic, 273. 

late discoveries in, 276. 

libraries of, 279. 
Paul's style, 133, 134. 
Pelagius, on freedom, 377 
Persecutions, 245, 471. 
Peshitta, 165, 174. 
Peter's " Gospel" and " Apocalypse," 

277. 
Piety, and orthodoxy, 67. 

five forms of, 75. 
Philo, quoted, 161. 

as allegorizer, 202. 
Philology, biblical, 101. 

ecclesiastical, 241. 
Philosophumena, 276. 
Philosophy and theology, 82. 
Physica Sacra, 144. 
"Plan of Union," 396. 
Poetry, 510. 
Poimenic, 507. 
Polity, apostolical, 463. 

papal, 465. 

presbyterian, 466. 

congregational, 466. 

denominational, literature for, 
467. 
Polytheism, 31. 



530 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



Postilla, 480. 
Preaching, 474, 477. 

where strongest, 497. 
Presbyter, 86. 

Presbyterian new creed, 401. 
"Present Day Theology," 398. 
Press, influence of the, 474. 
Princeton, professors' declaration, 
390. 

theology, 394. 
Probabilism, 442. 
Propaedeutic, iv., 6. 
Prophets, the, 324. 
Pseudo-Clementine homilies, 277. 
Pulpit, history of, 477. 

Greek, 478. 

Latin, 480. 

Middle Ages, 480. 

Eeformation, 483. 

Lutheran, 485. 

French, 485. 

Huguenot, 486. 

modern German, 486. 

English, 488. 

American, 496. 
Puritanism, 438. 
Raikes, Robert, 505. 
Rationalism, 350. 
Reformation, the, 281. 
Reformed Church confessions, 409. 
Religion, defined, 17. 

science, 18. 

history, 18. 

philosophy, 20. 

its value, 20. 

psychologically, 33, 65. 

intellectually, 65. 

practically, 69. 

emotionally, 71. 

experimentally, 73. 

and theology, 81. 

among the English, 402. 
Religions, classification, 29. 

natural, 29. 

revealed, 30. 

civilized, 32. 

barbarian, 32. 

sensual, 33. 

ascetic, 33. 

ethical, 33. 

by ideas and aims, 35. 

tribal, 35. 

national, 36. 

universal, 36. 
Religious liberty, 246, 470. 
Religious tests, 472. 
Renaissance, 209, 297. 
Reuchlin, J., 211. 
Reunion of Presbyterians, 397. 



Revision of English Version of 1870, 

sqq., 190. 
Ritschl, A., as to John, 183. 

in theology, 229, 355. 
Robertson, E. W., quoted, 97. 

on man, 239. 

as preacher, 493. 
Roman Church Creed, 408. 
Rosetta stone, 119. 
Samaritan, 117. 
Savonarola, 482. 
Schaff, quoted, 99. 
Schiller, quoted, 66. 
Schleiermacher, F., 487. 

on dependence, 71. 
Scholasticism, 370, 373. 
Schoolmen, the, 369. 
Scotch Church laws, 462. 
Scott, W., quoted, 97. 
"Self-love," 384. 
Semitic, 103, 104, 115. 
Semitic religion, 34. 
Semler, J. L., 224. 
Septuagint, the, 127. 

editions, 162. 

concordance, 163. 
Servetus, 471. 

Shedd, W. G. T., theology of, 39^ 
Siloam inscription, 109. 
Simon, R., on "inerrancy," 393. 
Smith, H. B., quoted, 98. 

as to Christocentric, 363. 

on American theology, 375. 

on Emmons, 383. 
Smyth, E. C, 385. 
Socinianism, 439. 
Sociology, 442. 
South, R., 490. 
Spinoza, quoted, 380. 
Spurgeon, C. H., 494. 
Statistic, religious, 21. 

universal, 23. 

by nations, 24. 

English denominations, 25. 

United States, 25, 28. 

by sects in U. S. A., 26. 

of Roman Catholics in U. S., 
27. 

geographical and numerical, 
441. 

social, 445. 

how composed, 445. 

lessons of, 446. 
Stoicism, 425. 
Storrs, R. S., 499. 
Stoughton, J., quoted, 220. 
Straus, D. F., last words, 271. 
Students' library, 91. 
Study, of theology, hints for, 87. 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



531 



Study, of the Bible, 96. 

exegetical, 232. 

of Church history, 305. 

in German universities, 403. 
Snmma de Casibus Pcenitentialibus, 

442. 
Summa Theologice, 435. 
Sunday-school, American, 505. 
Symbolic, historical, 410. 

polemical, 410. 

history, 417. 
Symbols of faith, 406, 407. 
Syriac, 117. 
Syriac translations of the Gospels, 

277. 
Systematic theology, 307. 
Talmud, 142, 171, 201, 203. 
Targum, 201. 
Tauler, 482. 
Taylor, J., 490. 
Taylor, N. W., 384. 
"Teaching of the Twelve Apostles," 

137, 277, 327, 429. 
Tennyson, quoted, 361. 
Textual criticism, 154. 

variations, 155. 

of Old Testament, 158. 
Theodosius I., penal laws, 39. 
Theological definitions, 308. 
Theology, defined, 77, 449. 

natural and revealed, 79. 

and religion, 80. 

and philosophy, 82. 

and the clergy, 85. 

its divisions, 92. 

Exegetical, 93. 

Jewish, 146. 

Historical, 234. 

spirit for, 257. 

Systematic, 307. 

use of apologetic, 312. 

Biblical, 316. 

patristic, 329. 

Dogmatic, 333. 

evangelical union, 352. 

anthropocentric, 362. 

christocentric, 362. 

theocentric, 362. 

in Germany, 402. 



Theology, Practical, 448. 

how divided, 449. 

history of, 451. 

writers on, 452. 

Pastoral, 507. 
Tholuck, 487. 

and American scholars, 390. 
Thornwell, J. H., 394. 
Tillotson, J., 490. 
Tocqueville, A., de, on America, 

292. 
Toleration, 59, 282. 

and liberty, 469. 
Traducianism, 395. 
Trimurtti, 44. 
"True Christianity," 437. 
Turanian, 104. 

religion, 34. 
Turretin, J. H., 391. 
Tyler, B., 385. 
Tyndale, Wm, 215. 
Union Seminary, 319, 397, 516. 
Unitarianism, 349, 374, 386, 387. 
United States of America, 289. 

Church history, 289. 

separation of church and state, 
292. 
Urban II., 480. 
Viret, P., 484. 
Waddington, G., 303. 
Weiss, B., on John, 326. 
Wesley, J., 491, 505. 
Westminster Confession on the Bi- 
ble, 97. 

its revision, 394, 400. 
Whitaker's "Almanack," 24. 
Whitefield, G., 491. 
Wiclif, J., 209, 482. 
Williams, M., on Buddhists, 45. 
Woodruff, A., 506. 
Woods, L., 385. 
Wordsworth, Chr. , as to the Fathers, 

206. 
Worship, history of, 248. 

aesthetic, 509. 
Young, B., as polygamist, 58. 
Zoolatry, 50. 
Zoroastrianism, 49. 
Zwingli, 102, 214, 371, 483. 



INDEX OF AUTHOES. 



Abbot, Ez., 137. 
Abbott, Lyman, 239. 
Aehelis, E. C, 453. 
Alexander, W. A., 463. 
Alford, H., 231. 
Alger, W. E., 296. 
Allen, A. J. C, 504. 
Alzog, J., 279. 
Ambrose, 12. 
Andrews, J. W., 462. 

, S. J., 271. 

Aquinas, T., 209. 
Arminius, J., 347. 
Arnold, G., 300. 
Athanasius, 365. 
Augustin, 12, 366. 
Bacuez, et Vigouroux, 230. 
Baier, A. H., 419. 
Bain, Alex., 440. 
Baird, E., 293. 

, S. J., 462. 

Bapheides, Phil., 305. 
Bareille, et Fevre, 304. 
Baring-Gould, S., 249. 
Barnaby, J., 247. 
Baronius, C, 298. 
Baumstark, C. E., 315. 
Baur, F. C. v., 295, 331, 404. 
Bautain, 500. 
Baxter, E., 442, 488, 507. 
Beard, C, 283. 
Beauvais, V. de, 12. 
Beck, C. A., 516. 

, J. T., 335. 

Bengel, J. A., 218. 
Bennett, C. W., 280. 
Berington, and Kirk, 339. 
Bernard, T. D., 331, 332. 
Bestmann, H. J., 428. 
Beveridge, W., 346. 
Beyschlag, W., 271, 331. 
Bezold, Fr. v., 283. 
Biedermann, A. E., 351. 
Biel, G., 370. 
Bingham, J., 280. 
Binterim, 280. 
Blaikie, W. G., 494. 
Bleek, F., 404. 



Bliss, E. M., 522. 
Blunt, J. H., 462. 
Bochart, 146. 
Bodemann, F. W., 419. 
Bohmer, J. H., 462. 
Bohringer, Fr., 295. 
Booth, B.,'523. 
Bopp, F., 103. 
Bossuet, 339. 
Bowne, B. P., 440. 
Brace, C. L., 249. 
Bratke, Ed., 234. 
Bretschneider, K. G., 351. 
Briggs, C. A., 330. 
Bright, Wm, 461. 
Brinkmeier, 243. 
Brockmann, 243. 
Brown, Francis, 121. 
Browne, E. H., 346. 
Buel, S., 346. 
Buhl, F., 169. 
Bull, G., 346. 
Bullinger, 13. 
Bunsen, C. K. J., 230. 
Burrage, H. S., 516. 
Busenbaum, H., 442. 
Bushnell, H., 271, 314, 498. 
Butler, Alban, 249. 

, J., 314. 

, J. G., 230. 



Bruce, A. B., 314, 457. 
Brunialti, A., 469. 
Bryce, J., 294. 
Calixtus, 216. 
Calmet, A., 223. 
Calov, Abr., 217. 
Calvin, J., 342. 
Carpzov, J. G., 149. 
Caryl, Jos., 221. 
Cassiodorus, 12, 297. 
Castelar, 289. 
Caswall, E., 515. 
Cave, A., 16. 
Chalmers, T., 343. 
Chambers, T. W., 194. 
Charteris, A. H., 169. 
Chastel, E. L., 303. 
Christ, and Paranikas, 515. 

532 



INDEX OF AUTHORS. 



533 



Christlieb, Theod., 315, 477, 522. 
Chrysostom, 12. 
Clarisse, Jo., 14. 
Clarke, A., 222. 

, J. F., 29. 

Coccejus, J., 218. 
Cook, T. C, 230. 
Cornill, 160. 
Cramer, J. A., 209. 
Creighton, M., 284. 
Cremer, H., 136, 404. 
Crooks, and Hurst, 15. 
Cyril of Jerusalem, 504. 
Daniel, H. A., 508, 515. 
Davidson, A. B., 113, 330. 

, G., 169. 

Davies, G. J., 492. 
Delitzsch, Franz, 268, 330. 

, Fr., 120. 

Denziger, H., 338. 

De Rossi, 248. 

De Wette, 225. 

Dick, J., 343. 

Diestel, L., 186. 

Diez, 243. 

Dillmann, Bertheau, and others, 231. 

Doddridge, Philip, 221. 

Dcedes, I. T., 14. 

Dollinger, I., 284, 304. 

, and Reusch, 440. 

Dorchester, D., 293, 447. 

Dorner, I. A., 295, 354, 373, 441. 

Drey, J. Seb., 13. 

Driver, S. R., 160. 

Drumann, 247. 

Drummond, J., 15, 268. 

Duff, A., 330. 

Duffield, S. W., 516. 

Ebrard, J. H. A., 295, 315, 343. 

Edersheim, A., 271. 

Edwards, Jon., 380. 

Egelhaaf, G., 283. 

Eichhorn, J. G., 225. 

Ellicott, C. J., 230. 

Erasmus, 12. 

Ernesti, J. A., 224. 

Estius, W., 223. 

Eusebius, 297. 

Ewald, H., 112, 266, 330, 404. 

Fairbairn, A. M., 344. 

Farrar, A. S., 314. 

, F. W., 271, 279. 

Fenelon, 485. 
Fick, 103. 
Ficker, 243. 
Finney, C. G., 523. 
Fischer, A. F. W., 516. 
Fisher, G. P., 243, 268, 283, 314, 315, 
374, 384. 



Fiske, J., 289. 

Flacius, M., 298. 

Fleury, C, 299. 

Foxe, J., 246. 

Francke, A. H., 218. 

Frank, F. H. R., 341, 359, 441. 

, G. W., 373. 

Freeman, E. A., 447. 

Fresne, C. du, 139. 

Friedberg, E., 462, 469. 

Fritzsche, C. F. A., 225. 

Fulton, J., 461. 

Gardthausen, 243. 

Gass, W., 338, 373, 428. 

Gebhardt, v., Harnack, and Zahn, 

278. 
Geier, W., 217. 
Gerhart, E. V., 343. 
Gerlach, H., 462. 
Gesenius, F. H. W., 225. 
Gess, W. F., 331. 
Gibbons, J., 339. 
Gieseler, J. C. L., 301. 
Gill, J., 221. 
Ginsburg, C. D., 159. 
Glass, Sal., 217. 
Glassius, S., 112. 
Godet, F., 230, 404. 
Goebel, M., 249. 
Gousset T. M. J., 339. 
Graul, K., 420. 
Gray, J. C, 230. 
Gregory I., 12. 

of Nyssa, 504. 

, A., 506. 

C. R., 163. 



Gretillat, A., 16, 354. 
Groot, de, and Pareau, 14. 
Grotius, H., 219. 
Grundemann, P. R., 243, 522. 
Guericke, H. C. F., 419. 
Gundert, H., 522. 
Gury, P. J. P., 440, 442. 
Guyon, Mme. de, 223. 
Haering, 358. 
Hagenbach, C. R., 302. 
•, K. R., 14, 282, 283. 



Hahn, H. A., 410. 
Hall, Jos., 220. 
Hammond, H., 220. 

, C. E., 509. 

, W. A., 461. 



Hardouin, J., 248. 
Hardwick, C, 305. 
Harless, G. C. A., 14, 441. 
Harnack, Ad., 169, 250, 278, 301, 357, 

360. 
Harris, J. R., 277. 
Hartmann, J., 283. 



534 



INDEX OF AUTHORS. 



Hase, K., 271, 296, 303, 340, 420. 
Hasse, H. G., 420. 
Hatch, Ed., 136, 357, 467. 

, and Eedpath, 163. 

Hatfield, E. F., 516. 
Hausrath, A., 404. 
Hausser, L., 283. 
Havernik, H. A. C, 330. 
Hefele, C. J. v., 248, 289. 
Heidegger, J. H., 152, 219. 
Heinrici, K. F. G., 16. 
Hengstenberg, E. W., 266. 
Henke, H. P. C, 301. 
Henry, Matt., 221. 
Heppe, H., 343. 
Herder, J. G., 13, 225. 
Hergenrother, Jos., 305. 
Herrmann, J. G., 359. 
Hettinger, F., 315. 
Hickok, L. P., 440. 
Hilgers, B. J., 419. 
Hill, G., 343. 
Hinschins, P., 462. 
Hitchcock, E. L\, 443. 
Hitzig, F., 225. 
Hodder, E., 522. 
Hodge, A. A., 343, 392, 394. 

, C, 343, 462. 

Hoffman, M., 462. 
Hofmann, J. K. v., 15. 

, Eud., 419. 

Hoist, H. v., 294. 

Holtzmann, Lipsius, Schmiedel, von 

Soden, 231. 
Hooker, E., 345. 
Hopkins, M., 440. 
Horoy, Abbe, 278. 
Hottinger, J. H., 152. 
Hughes, H., 440. 
Hugo de St. Caro, 209. 

of St. Victor, 12. 

Huntington, W. E., 420. 

Hurel, A., 477. 

Hurst, J. F., 305. 

Hurter, F. E. v., 247. 

Ideler, 243. 

Immer, A., 331. 

Irving, W., 289. 

Isidor of Seville, 12. 

Jackson, S. M., 121, 245. 

Jameson, Fausset, and Brown, 230. 

Janet, P., 440. 

Janssen, Joh., 284. 

Jerome, 276. 

Jodl, F., 428. 

John of Damascus, 337, 365. 

Josephus, 142. 

Julian, J., 516. 

Kaftan, J. W. M., 35L 



Kahnis, K. F. A., 341, 373. 
Kalkar, C. H., 522. 
Kattenbusch, F., 243, 355, 420. 
Keil, and Delitzsch, 231. 
Keim, T., 404. 
Kempe, 477. 
Kienlen, H. G., 14. 
Kihn, H., 16. 
King, J., 516. 
Kittel, 267. 
Knapp, A., 515. 
Koch, E. E., 516. 
Labbeus, and Cossart, 248. 
Lagarde, P. de, 146, 163. 
Lampe, F. A., 219. 
Lange, J., 218. 

J. P., 14, 229, 343, 404. 



Lapide, C. a, 223. 

Lardner, N., 314. 

Lau, 247. 

Lecky, W. E. H., 427. 

Le Clerc, 219. 

Le Quien, 338. 

Levita, Elias, 159. 

Lightfoot, J. B., 221, 273, 278. 

Liguori, A. M. da, 440, 442. 

Limborch, P. v., 347. 

Lipsius, E. A., 351, 359. 

Lombard, Peter, 369. 

Lowe, J., 522. 

Lowth, E., 222. 

Lucius, P. E., 268. 

Luthardt, C. E., 315, 341, 404, 424, 

428, 441. 
Luther, 213. 
Lyra, N., 110, 210. 
Mabillon, 243. 
McClintock, J., 14. 
McCosh, J., 314. 
Maclear, G. F., 523. 
McElhinney, J., 457. 
McMaster, J. B., 294. 
Maldonado, J., 222. 
Mansi, G. D., 248. 
Marheineke, P. K., 351, 419. 
Martensen, H., 341, 404, 441. 
Martignv, J. A., 280. 
Martin, E., 16. 
Martineau, J., 440. 
Matthes, F. E., 419. 
Maurenbrecher, "W., 285. 
Mead, G. M., 315. 
Melanchthon, 12. 
Merle D'Aubigne, 283. 
Meao?M7rac, I. E., 420. 
Mever, H. A. W., 231. 
Miehgelis, J. D., 224. 
Migne, Abbe, 278. 
Miley, J., 348- 



INDEX OF AUTHORS. 



535 



Miller, J., 516. 

Milner, J., 300. 

Minghetti, M., 469. 

Mohler, J. A., 304, 419. 

Mone, F. J., 508, 515. 

Moore, W. E., 463. 

Mosheim, J. L. v., 300. 

Mulford, E., 443. 

Miiller, J., 295, 354, 420, 457. 

Natalis, A., 299. 

Navarrete, 289. 

Neale, J. M., 508, 515. 

Neander, A., 295, 301, 331, 419, 428. 

Nestle, E., 117, 163. 

Newman, J. H., 239. 

Nicoll, W. R., 231. 

Nippold, F., 293. 

Nirsehl, Jos., 234, 279. 

Nitzsch, C. J., 453. 

, F., 359. 

, K. Im., 335. 

Oberthur, 13. 
CEcolarapadius, J., 214. 
Oehler, G. F., 330, 420. 
Oettiugen, A. v., 443. 
Olshausen, H., 231. 
Oosterzee, J. J. v., 331, 343, 453. 
Origen, 365. 
Pagninus, S., 152. 
Paley, W., 314. 
Paniel, 477. 
Park, E. A., 374, 382. 
Parkinan, F., 289. 
Pastor, L., 284. 
Paton, J. G., 523. 

Patrick, Lowth, Whitby, and Low- 
man, 220. 
Paulus, H. E. G., 225. 
Payne, E. J., 289. 
Pearson, J., 345. 
Pelt, A. F. L., 14. 
Perowne, J. J. S., 230, 231. 
Pen-one, G., 339. 
Pestalozzi, J. H., 504. 
Petermann, J. H., 104. 
Pfleiderer, O., 273, 352, 359, 373, 404. 
Pliilaret, 338. 
Pkilippi, F. A., 341, 420. 
Phillemore, 462. 
Phillips, G., 462. 
Pick, B., 268. 
Pin, L. E. du, 13. 
Piper, K. W. F., 249. 
Planck, G. J., 247, 373. 
Plitt, G., 420. 
Poole, M., 220. 
Pope, W. B., 348. 
Porter, N., 440. 
Possevinus, A., 13. 



Prsetorius, F., 122. 
Pray, L. G., 506. 
Prentiss, G. L., 397. 
Prescott, 289. 
Pressense, E. de, 271. 
Quesnell, P., 223. 
Rabanus Maurus, 12. 
Rabiger, J. F., 15. 
Ranke, L. v., 283, 284. 
Rawlinson, H. C, 121. 
Raymond, M., 348. 
Reiff, Fr., 354. 
Reinhard, 270. 
Reischle, M., 359. 
Reland, 146. 
Renan, E., 267, 273. 
Reuchlin, J., 111. 
Reuss, E., 169, 230, 331. 
Reuter, H. F., 247. 
Reville, A., 404. 
Reynolds, H. R., 268. 
Richter, E. L., 462. 
Ritschl, A., 247, 295, 359. 
Bitter, C, 147. 
Rivetns, A., 152. 
Robertson, J., 267. 
, J. C, 303. 



Robinson, E., 113, 147. 

Rohrbacher, Abbe, 304. 

Roscoe, W., 247. 

Rosenkrantz, K., 13. 

Rosenmiiller, 224. 

Rothe, R., 15, 247, 354, 441. 

Rowe, C. A., 318. 

Ruinart, T., 246. 

Ryle, H. E., 169. 

Sa, Em. de, 222. 

Sabunde, R. de, 79. 

Salmon, G., 177. 

Sanday, W., 183. 

Scaliger, J., 218. 

Schaff, P., 127, 137, 194, 205, 231, 
239, 246, 250, 271, 279, 293, 
301, 303, 364, 420, 515. 

Schanz, P., 315. 

Scheele, K. H. G. v., 420. 

Schleiermacher, F., 13, 353, 441. 

Schmid, C. F., 331, 441. 
, H., 341. 



Schmidt, H., 420. 
-, S., 217. 
, W., 359. 



Schneckenburger, M., 268, 420. 
Schottgen, Chr., 217. 
Schouler, J., 294. 
Schrader, E., 404. 
Schrockh, J. M., 300. 
Schulte, Fr. v., 462. 
Schultz, F. W., 330. 



536 



INDEX OF AUTHORS. 



Schultz, H., 330. 
Schiirer, E., 148, 268, 404. 
Schweizer, A., 343. 
Scott, T., 221. 
Scrivener, F. H. A., 163. 
Seeley, J. R., 271. 
Shea, J. G., 289. 
Shedd, W. G. T., 343. 
Sidgwick, H., 424, 440. 
Siegel, K. C F., 280. 
Siegfried, C, 203. 
Simon, R., 152. 
Smedt, C. de, 234. 
Smith, H. B., 305, 343, 397. 

, G., 522. 

, W. R., 184. 

, and Cheetham, 248, 280. 

, and Wace, 279. 

Smyth, N., 440. 
Sophocles, E. A., 139. 
Spence, and Exell, 230. 
Spencer, H., 443. 
Spener, P. J., 442. 
Sprague, W. B., 496. 
Sprecher, S., 341. 
Spurgeon, C. H., 221. 
Stade, B., 267, 330. 
Stanley, A. P., 266, 338, 467. 
Stanton, V. H., 268. 
Stapfer, E., 268. 
Starke, Chr., 217. 
Staudenmeier, F. A., 13. 
Stearns, L. F., 314, 343, 398. 
Steel, R., 504. 
Stevenson, W. F., 522. 
Stolberg, F. L., 303. 
Storrs, R. S., 295, 314. 
Strack, H. L., 104, 160. 

, and Zockler, 230. 

Strauss, D. F., 351. 
Strong, A. H., 343. 
Strong, W., 462. 
Stuckenberg, J. H. W., 443. 
Suicer, C, 139. 
Swainson, C. A., 509. 
Swedenborg, E., 226. 
Taylor, J., 442. 

, W. M., 494. 

Terry, M. S., 186. 

, and Newhall, 231. 

Thayer, J. H., 404. 
Thiersch, H. W. I., 419. 
Thomasius, G., 341. 
Thompson, J. P., 331. 

, R. E., 443. 

Tillemont, de, 299. 
Tischendorf, 163. 
Tobler, T., 148. 
Tocqueville, A. de, 294. 



Trapp, J., 220. 
Trench, R. C, 516. 
Trumbull, H. C, 506. 
Tschackert, P., 420. 
Turretin, F., 391. 
Twesten, A. D. C, 341. 
Uhlhorn, G., 246, 249, 271. 
Ullmann, K., 354, 404. 
Ussher, J., 345. 
Valla, L., 210. 
Vering, F. H., 462. 
Vincent, 477. 
-, J. H., 506. 



Vinet, A., 453, 500. 

, A. R., 472. 

Vitringa, C, 146. 
Voigt, J., 247. 
Wace, Henry, 279. 
Wackernagel, P., 515. 
Walter, F., 462. 
Warfield, B. B., 393. 
Warneck, G., 522. 
Watson, R., 348. 
, W. H., 506. 



Weber, F., 268. 
■, Georg, 283. 



Wegscheider, J. H. L., 351. 
Weidner, R. F., 15. 
Weingarten, H., 305. 
Weiss, B., 157, 271, 331, 404. 
-, H., 441. 



Wellhausen, J., 160, 266, 268. 
Wendt, H. H., 331. 
Wesley, J., 347. 
Westcott, B. F., 169. 
Wetstein, J. J., 219. 
Whedon, D. D., 230. 
Whewell, W., 440. 
Whyte, A., 504. 
Wiggers, J., 447. 
Wildeboer, G., 169. 
Williams, Monier, 45. 
Wiltsch, J. E. T., 446. 
Winer, G. B., 136, 419. 
Winsor, J. D., 289, 294. 
Wirthnraller, J. B., 14. 
Wiseman, Cardinal, 339. 
Worden, J. A., 506. 
Wordsworth, C., 504. 
, Christ., 230. 



Worner, E., 331. 
Wright, Ch. H. H., 153. 

, Wm, 104. 



Wuttke, A., 424. 
Wyss, C, 136. 
Zahn, T., 169. 
Zeller, E., 404, 424. 
Ziegler, Th., 424, 428. 
Zockler, O., 16. 



MINISTERIAL LIBRARY 

COMPILED BY 

EEV. SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, M.A., 

D.D. (University of the City op New York, 1893), 
LL.D. (Washington and Lee University, Va., 1892). 



A MINISTEEIAL LIBRAEY. 

Being a selected list of the best hooks in all departments of 
a theological education which have appeared in English, together 
with a few books in other languages. 

COMPILED BY 

Eey. Samuel Macauley Jackson, M.A. 



HINTS FOE, THE PURCHASE OF BOOKS. 

1. Buy the latest edition, even although an earlier one 
can be obtained for much less money. 

2. Buy the work in the original language, save in those 
exceptional cases where either the translator has presented 
his author in more intelligible form than the author does 
himself, or the author or translator has incorporated in the 
translation matter correcting or supplementing the original. 

3. Buy the work in the edition published in the country 
of its origin, if the work has gone into a revised edition, e.g., 
buy English books in English editions, because scholarly 
authors commonly alter, enlarge, or correct their matter in 
the subsequent editions, whereas the reprint is generally of 
the first edition unaltered. 

4. Bogus reprints can be detected by the absence of an 
American copyright notice. 

5. The new books will be found authoritatively reviewed, 
to mention only foreign journals, in Schiirer's Theologische 
Liter aturzeitung (Leipzig) ; Luthardt's Theologisches Literatur- 
blatt (Leipzig) ; Salmond's Critical Review of TJieological and 
Philosophical Literature (Edinburgh), and in The Church 
Quarterly Review (London). 

539 



INTRODUCTION. 

BOOKS OF REFERENCE.* 

A. General. 
English Dictionaeies. 

The Century Dictionary. New York. The Century Company, 1889-91, 6 

vols., fol., 



A combination of dictionary and encyclopaedia. Edited by William Dwight 
Whitney. 

Standard Dictionary. New York: Funk & Wagnalls' Co., 1894, fol., $12. 

* Stormonth's Dictionary. London : Blackwood ; New York : Harpers, 
1884, imp. 8vo, cloth, 31s. 6d., $6. 

Webster's International Dictionary. Springfield : G. & C. Merriam, 1890, 
fol., sheep, $10. 

A revision of Webster's Unabridged. Edited by Noah Porter. 
English Encyclopaedias. 

The Encyclopaedia Britannica. Ninth ed. Edinburgh : A. & C. Black ; 
New York: Scribners, 1875-89, 25 vols., 8vo, cloth, each, 30s., $5. 
Edited by T. S. Baynes and W. Kobertson Smith. 

* Johnson's Universal Encyclopaedia. Third revised ed. New York : A. 
J. Johnson Company, 1893-95, 8 vols., 8vo, each $6. 

Edited by Charles Kendall Adams. 
Chambers's Encyclopaedia. New ed. Edinburgh : W. & R. Chambers ; 
Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1888-93, 10 vols., 8vo, each 

10s., $3. 

Dates on the American title-pages may be later than above ; excellent work with 
limited vocabulary. 

International Cyclopaedia. New edition. New York : Dodd, Mead & Co. , 
1891, 15 vols., 8vo. $45. 
Biographical Dictionaries. 

Appleton's Cyclopaedia of American Biography. New York : Appleton, 
1886-88, 6 vols., 8vo, each, $5. 

Edited by James Grant Wilson and John Fiske. Very comprehensive and 
accurate ; includes living characters. 

Thompson Cooper : Biographical Dictionary, to the end of the year 1882. 
London : Bell & Son, 1890. 2 vols., 12mo, 10s. 
Takes in all times and nations : a scholarly work. 

* In this and the following lists the books preferred by the compiler are 
starred. Pagination is given only in the case of books issued within the past 
two years. The order of topics is that in SchafF s Propaedeutic, for which this 
list was specially compiled. In most cases the prices of the original and of 
the American reprint are given. 

540 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 5 

Dictionary of National Biography. London : Smith, Elder & Co. ; New 
York : Macmillan, 1885 sqq. 8vo, each, 15s. or $3.75. 

W. 1-21, edited by Leslie Stephen ; vv. 22-26, by Leslie Stephen and Sidney Lee ; 
v. 27 sqq. by Sidney Lee; 4 vols, a year, vol. 35, July, 1893. Scholarly, corrects 
many traditional errors, includes no living characters, but persons in every walk of 
life. 
Lippincott's Pronouncing Biographical Dictionary. Second ed. Philadel- 
phia : J. B. Lippincott Co. , 1885, roy. 8vo, $12. 

Edited by J. Thomas. Comprehensive ; the pronouncing feature is useful. 
Men and Women of the Time. Thirteenth ed. London and New York : 
Routledge, 1891. 8vo, $3. 

Edited by Geo. Washington Moon ; derived largely from material furnished by 
the subjects themselves. 
Vapereau, G.: Dictionnaire universel des contemporaines. Sixth ed. Paris: 
Hachette et Cie., 1893. 8vo, $10. 

A famous book, much more comprehensive than "Men and Women of the 
Time." 

Dictionaries of Chronology. 

Woodward, B.B., and Cates, W. L. R.: Encyclopaedia of Chronology, his- 
torical and biographical. London and New York : Longmans, 1872. 
8vo, 42s., $15. 
Haydn, J. : Dictionary of Dates and Universal Information relating to all 
ages and nations. Twentieth ed. New York : Putnams, 1893. 8vo. $5. 
Edited by Benjamin Vincent. 

Classical Dictionaries. 

Smith, Wm.: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 

London : Murray, 1843-48, 3 vols. , 8vo, 63s. 
Same : Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. Same, 1854-57, 

2 vols , 8vo, 56s. 
Same: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Same, 1890-91, 
2 vols., 8vo, 63s. (Boston : Little, Brown & Co., $14.) 
Classical and Biblical Atlas. 

Smith, Wm., and Grove, Geo.: Atlas of Ancient Geography, biblical and 
classical ; Same, 1875, fol. £6 6s. 

B. Religious. 
Religious Encyclopaedias (Biblical matter included). 

Herzog, J. J.: Real-Encyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche. 
Second ed. Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1877-88, 18 vols., 8vo, 219 marks. 

The great thesaurus of German Protestant learning ; edited by J. 5. Herzog (d. 
1882), G. L. Plitt (d. 1880) and A. Hauck. Third edition in preparation. 

Wetzer und Welte : Kirchenlexikon oder Encyklopadie der katholischen 

Theologie und ihrer Hulfswissenschaften. Second ed. Freiburg im Br.: 

Herder, 1882 sqq. 8vo, each, 11 marks. 

Edited by Cardinal Hergenrother (d. 1890> and F. Kaulen (vol. 10, 1893). The 
standard Roman Catholic thesaurus of ecclesiastical learning. 

McClintock and Strong : Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesi- 
astical Literature. New York: Harpers, 1869-81, 10 vols. , supplement, 
1885-87, 2 vols, 8vo, each $5. 

An avowed compilation, on the whole well done, with the most copious vocabu- 
lary of any religious encyclopaedia. 

The Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia of Religious Knowledge. New York : 

Funk & Wagnalls' Co. Third rev. ed. 1891, 4 vols., 8vo, $20. 

Incorporates the " Encyclopaedia of Living Divines," prepared by Philip Schaff and 
Samuel Macauley Jackson, 1887, brought down to end of 1890. 

541 



6 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

Concise Dictionary of Religious Knowledge. Third and thoroughly re- 
vised edition. New York : Maynard, Merrill & Co., 1893, 8vo, $3.50. 

Edited by Samuel Macauley Jackson, with two associate editors and forty special 
contributors. 

Religious Encyclopaedias (without matter relating to the Bible). 

Addis, W. E., and Arnold, T.: A Catholic Dictionary containing some ac- 
count of the doctrine, discipline, rites, ceremonies, councils, and relig- 
ious orders of the Catholic Church. Fourth ed. London : Kegan Paul, 
1893, 8vo, 21s. 

Kevised and enlarged with the assistance of Kev. P. B. Scannell. 

Blunt, J. H. : Dictionary of Doctrinal and Theological Theology. Third 

ed. London : Longmans, 1891, roy. 8vo, 42s. 
Same : Dictionary of Sects, Heresies, Parties, and Schools of Religious 

Thought. Second ed. London : Rivington, 1886, roy. 8vo, 36s. 
Hook, W. F.: A Church Dictionary. Fourteenth ed. London: Murray, 

1887, 8vo, 21s. 

Edited by Walter Hook and W. K. Stephens. The standard for the Anglican 
Church. 

Smith, W., and Wace, H. : A Dictionary of Christian Biography, Litera- 
ture, Sects, and Doctrines, During the First Eight Centuries. London : 
Murray, 1877-87, 4 vols., 8vo, £6 16s. Qd. 

Smith, W. , and Cheetham, S.: A Dictionary of Christian Antiquities; 
Same, 1875-80, 2 vols., 8vo, £3 13s. 6d. 

The two works just mentioned are indispensable for patristic study. 

Bliss, E. M.: The Encyclopaedia of Missions, Descriptive, Historical, Bio- 
graphical, Statistical. New York : Funk & Wagnalls' Co., 1891. 2 vols., 
8vo, $12. 

The only work of the kind on the market ; contains a full bibliography of the 

subject. 

Julian, J.: Dictionary of Hymnology. London: Murray, 1892. 8vo, 42s. 
New York : Scribners, $10 net. 

Ten years in preparation, quite complete ; the only work of its kind published. 

Bible Dictionaries. 

Ayre, J.: A Treasury of Bible Knowledge. Third ed. London : Long- 
mans, 1872. 12mo, 6s. 
Fausset, A. R. : The Englishman's Critical and Expository Bible Cyclopaedia, 

Fifth ed. London : Hodder & Stoughton, 1893. 4to, 7s. Qd. 
Kitto, J.: A Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature. Third ed. Edinburgh: 
A. & C. Black, 1862-70. 4 vols., 8vo, 70s. 
Edited by W. L. Alexander. 
Schaff, Philip : A Dictionary of the Bible. Fifth ed. Philadelphia : 
Am. S. S. Union, 1890. 8vo, $2. 

The best one vol. Bible Dictionary. 
Smith, W.: Dictionary of the Bible, comprising its Antiquities, Biography, 
Geography, and Natural History. Second ed. London : Murray, 1893. 
3 vols., 8vo. (Vol. i. in 2 parts, extending through J. 42s.) 
Edited by J. M. Fuller ; simply invaluable. 
Theological Encyclopaedia. 

Cave, A.: An Introduction to Theology, its Principles, its Branches, its Re- 
sults, and its Literature. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1886. 8vo, 12s. 
New edition announced 1893. 

542 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 7 

Crooks, G. R. , and Hurst, J. F.: Theological Encyclopaedia and Method- 
ology. On the basis of Hagenbach. N. Y. Methodist Book Concern, 
1884. 8vo, $3.50. 

New edition announced 1893. 

Drummond, J. : Introduction to the Study of Theology. London & New 

York: Macrnillan, 1884. 8vo, 5s., $2.00. 
Hagenbach, K. R.: Encyklopadie and Methodologie der theologischen 

Wissenchaften. Twelfth ed. Leipzig : Hirzel, 1889. 8vo, 7 mks. 
Edited by Max Eeischle. 
Heinrici, G. : Theologische Encyklopadie. Freiburg im Br. : Mohr, 1893, 

8vo, 7 mks. 
Rabiger, J. F. : Encyclopaedia of Theology. Translated. Edinburgh : 

T. &T. Clark, 1884-85. 2 vols., 21s. Ger. orig., Leipzig: Fries, 1880. 

8vo, 7 mks. 
* Schaff , Philip : Theological Propaedeutic. New York : Scribners, 1893. 

8vo, $& 00. 
Spurgeon, C. H.: Lectures to My Students. London : Passmore ; New 

York: American Tract Soc, 1877. 12mo, 2s. 6d., $1.00. 
Weidner, R. F.: Theological Encyclopaedia and Methodology. Rock 

Island : Augustana Book Concern (nowRevell : Chicago and New York), 

1885-91. 3 vols., 12mo, $3.75. 

Avowedly based upon Hagenbach (see above), with the use of C. P. Krauth's 
unpublished lectures on the subject. 

Zockler, O. : Handbuch der theologischen Wissenschaften in encyklo- 

padischer Darstellung. Third ed. Nordlingen : Beck, 1889-90. 4 vols., 

8vo, 50 mks. Supplement, 1889-90, 7 mks. 

A collection of brief treatises on all departments of theology, written by con- 
servative scholars. 

dgfp' The following sets of books are designed to cover all departments of 
theology [those not dated have not yet appeared] : 

1. Grundriss der theologischen Wissenschaften. Published by J. C. 

B. Mohr, Freiburg im Br., in 8vo, comprising Old Testament Introduc- 
tion, by C. H. Cornill, second ed., 1892, pp. xvi. 324, 5 mks.; Church 
History, by K. Miiller, vol. 1, 1892, pp. xx. 636, 9.50 mks.; Outlines 
of the History of Dogma, by A. Harnack, 1889, trans, by Edwin 
Knox Mitchell. New York: Funk & Wagnalls' Co., 1893, pp. x. 567, 
$2.50 ; Encyclopaedia, by G. Heinrici, 1893; Philosophy and History 
of Religion, by M. Reischle ; Old Testament Theology, by B. Stade ; 
History of Israel, by H. Guthe ; New Testament Introduction, by A. Jti- 
licher ; New Testament Theology, by E. Grafe ; Symbolic, by F. Loofs ; 
Dogmatic, by J. W. M. Kaftan ; Ethic, by W. Herrmann ; Practical 
Theology, by E. A. Achelis ; Christian Archaeology, by J. Ficker ; Patris- 
tic, by G. Krtiger ; History of Protestant Theology, by E. Troltsch ; 
History of Missions, by C. Mirbt. 

2. Sammlung theologtscher lehrbucher. Published by the same, in 

8vo, comprising History of Doctrine, by A. Harnack, second ed., 
1888-90, 3 vols., 40 mks ; N. T. Introduction, by H. J. Holtzman, third 
ed,1892, 9 mks. ; Symbolic, by F. Kattenbusch, vol. 1, 1893, 12 mks.; 
Practical Theology, by A. Krauss, 1890-93, 2 vols., 16 mks. ; Church His- 
tory, by W. Moeller, English trans., vol. 1, London, 1892, vol. 2, 1893, 
vol. 3 of orig., ed. by G. Kawerau, in press ; Dogmatic, by F. Nitsch, 
1891 ; Comparative Religion, by P. D. de la Saussaye, 1887-89, 2 vols., 
18 mks., Eng. trans, of vol. 1, Manual of the Science of Religion, 
London, 1891, 12s. 6d.; Ethic, by H. Weiss, 1889, 5 mks.; Philosophy of 

543 



8 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

Religion, by H. Siebeck, 1893 ; Old Testament Theology, by R. Smend, 
1893, 12 mks.; Old Testament Introduction, by K. Budde ; New Testa- 
ment Theology, by E. Schiirer. 

3. Theologische Bibliothek (Roman Catholic). Published by Herder, 

Freiburg im Br., in 8vo, comprising Patrology, by J. Alzog, fourth ed. 
1888, pp. xii. 590, 8 mks. ; Church History, by J. Hergenrother, third 
ed. 1886, 3 vols., xxxii. 2872, 34 mks. ; Apologia for the Christian Relig- 
ion, by F. Hettinger, Eng. trans. N. Y., Vol. 1, 1890, $2, orig. second 
ed. , pp. xvi. 926, 1888 ; Old and New Testament Introduction by F. 
Kaulen, third ed., 1892, pp. vi. 664, 8 mks.; Encyclopaedia, by 
H. Kihn, 1892, pp xii. 574, 8 mks.; Moral Theology, by J. E. Pruner, 
second ed., 1883, pp. xx. 800, 10 mks.; Dogmatic, by M. J. Scheeben, 
1875-1887, 3 vols., pp. viii. 916, 10.80 mks., xii. 952, 12 mks., xii. 1,014, 
12.40 mks.; Biblical Archaeology, by P. Schegg, 1888, pp. xxviii. 716, 
9 mks.; History of Doctrine, by J. Schwane, second ed., 1892, 4 vols., 
pp. x. 572, 7.50 mks., xii. 1,128, 9 mks., xii. 702, 10.75 mks., x. 416, 
5 mks.; Liturgic, by B. Thalhofer, 1887-91, 1, pp. xiv. 918, 10 mks., II. 
viii. 344, 4 mks., Church Law, by F. H. Vering, second ed. , 1881, pp. 
xx. 1,002, 14 mks. Second series : The Mass, by N. Gihr, fifth ed., 1892, 
pp. xvi. 734, 7 mks. ; The Sequences, by N Gihr, 1887, pp. viii. 548 ; 
Homiletic, by J. Jungmann, second ed. , 1883-84, 2 vols., pp. xvi. 1,192, 
12 mks. ; Pastoral Medical Advice, by A. Stohr, third ed., 1887, pp. viii. 
468. 

4. The International Theological Library. Edited by Rev. Profes- 

sors Charles A. Briggs, D.D., and Stewart D. F. Salmond, D.D. Pub- 
lished by T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh, and Charles Scribner's Sons, New 
York, in 8vo, at $2.50 net, each ; comprising An Introduction to the Old 
Testament, by S. R. Driver, 1891 ; Christian Ethics, by Newman Smyth, 
1892 ; Apologetics, by A. B. Bruce, 1893 ; Theology of the Old Testa- 
ment, by A. B. Davidson ; An Introduction to the Literature of the New 
Testament, by S. D. F. Salmond ; Contemporary History of the Old Testa- 
ment, by Francis Brown ; History of Christian Doctrine, by G. P. Fisher ; 
Comparative Religion, by A. M. Fairbairn ; Symbolics, by Philip Schaff ; 
Philosophy of Religion, by Robert Flint ; Christian Institutions, by A. V. 
G. Allen ; The Apostolic Church, by A. C. McGiffert. 



544 



BOOK I— EELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 

Religion : Its Definition, Science and Philosophy. 

Baring-Gould, S. : The Origin and Development of Religious Belief. Pt. 
1, Polytheism and Monotheism ; Pt. 2, Christianity. London and New 
York: Longmans, 1870-71. 2 vols., 3d ed. 1892. Pp. xvi. 422; xx. 
388. 7s., $2.50. 
Butler, Bp. J. : The Analogy of Religion to the Constitution and Course of 
Nature. London: 1736. 

Many Editions and Reprints. E.g. in Bohn's Library, 1886. $1.40. 
Caird, B. : The Evolution of Religion. Glasgow : Maclehose, 1893. 2 

vols., pp. 730, 8vo, 14s. net. 
Caird, J. : An Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion. Glasgow : Mac- 
lehose, 1880. 4th ed., 1891, p. 8vo, 6s. New York : Macmillan. $1.50. 
Carpenter, W. B. : Permanent Elements of Religion. London and New 
York : Macmillan, 1889. 2d ed., 1891, p. 8vo, 6s. 
Bampton Lectures for 1887 by the Bishop of Ripon. 
Harris, S. : The Philosophic Basis of Theism. New York : Scribner, 1883. 
^ 8vo, $3.50. 

Same: The Self -revelation of God. New York: Scribner, 1887. Cr. 

8vo, $3.50. 
Liddon, H. P. : Some Elements of Religion. London: Ryvington, 1871. 
5th ed., 1885, cr. 8vo, Is. Qd. ' 

Eminently practical and helpful. 
Lotze, H. : Outlines of the Philosophy of Religion. Boston : Ginn & Co. , 
1887. 8vo, $1.00. London : Dickinson, 2s. 6d. 

Tr. by Prof. G. T. Ladd, of Yale College. Another tr. by Mrs. Conybeare (daughter 
of Max Miiller) edited by her husband, F. C. Conybeare, London : Sonnenschein, 
1892. 12mo, 2s. 6d. New York : Macmillan, 90 cts. 

Macdonald, J. : Religion and Myth. London : Nutt, 1893. Pp. 248, 8vo, 
7s. 6d. 

Facts connected with the religious observance and social customs of the 
African tribes. 

Mansel, H. L. The Limits of Religious Thought (Bampton Lectures for 

1858). London : Murray, 1858. 4th ed., 1859, 8vo, 7s. Qd. New York : 

Pott, 12mo, $1.50. 
Martineau, J. The Study of Religion : Its Sources and Contents. Oxford : 

Clarendon Press, 1888. 2d ed., 1888, 2 vols., cr. 8vo, 15s. 
Same : The Seat of Authority in Religion. London : Longmans, 1890. 

8vo, 14s. 
Mill, J. S. : Three Essays on Religion, viz., Nature, the Utility of Religion 

and Theism. London : Longmans, 1874. 8vo, 10s. Qd. New York : 

Holt, 8vo, $2.50. 

Remarkable because showing the approach a reverent unbeliever made towards 
revealed truth. 

545 



10 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

Midler, F. Max : Introduction to the Science of Religion. London : 

Longmans. 1873. 3d ed., 1893. Pp. 342, p. 8vo, 3s. 6d. 
Same: Physical Religion. London and, New York: Longmans, 1891. 

Pp. 422, p. 8vo, 10s. 6d, $3.00. 
Same : Anthropological Religion. Same, 1892. Pp. xxvii. 464, p. 8vo. 

10s. 6&, $3.00. 
Same : Theosophy ; or, Psychological Religion. Same, 1893. Pp. 600, 

p. 8vo, 10s. 6d, $3.00. 

The above-mentioned three are the Gifford Lectures for 1890, 1891, 1892. 
Pfleiderer, O. : The Philosophy of Religion on the Basis of its History. 

Eng. trans. London : Williams & Norgate, 1886-88. 4 vols. , 8vo, 

42s. 
Schleiermacher, F.: On Religion : speeches to its cultured despisers. Trans- 
lated, with Introduction, by John Oman. London : Paul, 1893. Pp. 

310, 8vo, 7s. Qd. 
Natural and Revealed Religion ; Deism, Materialism, Pantheism, 
Pessimism, and Agnosticism. 
D'Alviella, Count Gr. : Contemporary Evolution of Religious Thought in 

England, America, and India. London : Williams & Norgate, 1886. 

8vo, 10s. 6d. 
Cairns, J. : Unbelief in the Eighteenth Century. London : Longmans, 

1881. *8vo, 10s. 6d. New York : Harpers, 1881, 12mo, 60 cts. 
Collins, F. H. : Epitome of the Synthetic Philosophy. London : Williams, 

1889. 8vo, 15s. New York: Appleton, 12mo, $2.50. 
Authorized exposition of Spencer's Philosophy. 
Farrar, A. S. : Critical History of Free Thought in Reference to the Chris- 
tian Religion. Bampton Lectures for 1862. London : Murray, 1862. 8vo, 

16s. N. Y. : Appleton, 1863. 12mo, $2.00. 
Hunt, J. : History of Religious Thought in England [from the Reformation 

to 1800]. London: Isbister, 1870-73. 3 vols., 8vo, 2d ed., 1884, 31s. 

6d. New York : Routledge. $15.00. 
Same : An Essay on Pantheism. London : Longmans, 1866. 8vo. Second 

ed. styled, Pantheism and Christianity. London : Isbister, 1884. 8vo, 

12s. Qd. 

Learned and elaborate. 
Hurst, J. F. : History of Rationalism. New York: Scribner, 1865. 9th 

ed.,'rev., 1875. 8vo, $3.50. 
Lange, F. A. : The History of Materialism. London : Triibner, 1878-81, 
3 vols., 8vo, each, 10s. Qd. Boston : Osgood, $10.00. 
From the German. The best book on the subject. 
Lecky, W. E. H. : History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of 
Rationalism in Europe. London : Longmans, 1865. 2 vols., cr. 8vo, 7th 
ed., 1875. 16s. New York : Appleton, $4.00. 
Plumptre, C. E. : A General Sketch of the History of Pantheism. London : 
Triibner, 1881. 2 vols., 8vo, 18s. 

Vol. I. History : Oriental, Greek, and Modern to Spinoza. Vol. n. to present day. 

Spencer, H. : First Principles. London : Williams, 1862. New York : 
Appleton, 1873. 12mo, $2.50. 

"The Bible of Agnosticism," Cave. For Analysis of Spencer's Teaching, see 
Collins, F. H. 

546 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 11 

Stephen, Leslie : History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century. 

London: Smith & Elder, 1876. 2 vols., 8vo, 2d ed., 1880, 28s. 

New York: Putnam, $8.00. 

Well-written from the agnostic stand-point. 
Sully, J. : Pessimism ; a History and Criticism. London : Paul, 1877. 

2ded., 1882, 8vo, 14s. 
Comparative Religion : General Works On. 

Bettany, G-. T. : The World's Religions. London: Ward, Locke & Co. 

New York : The Christian Literature Company, 1891. 8vo, $2.50. 
Very comprehensive, carefully written from good sources. 
Brace, Ch. : The Unknown God, or Inspiration Among Pre-christian Races. 

New York: Armstrong, 1890. 8vo, $2.50. 
Clarke, J. F. : The Ten Great Religions. Boston : Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 

1870-83. 2 vols., 8vo. Vol. 1, 22d ed., 1886. Vol. 2, 5th ed., 1886. 

Each, $2.00. 

Excellent ; popular, but scholarly in style. The Ten Kehgions are Confucianism, 
Buddhism, Brahmanism, and the ancient religions of Persia, Egypt, Greece, Borne, 
Scandinavia, Palestine, and Arabia. 

Dods, M. : Mohammed, Buddha, and Christ. London : Hodder, 1877. 
4th ed., 1887. Cr. 8vo, 3s. 6d. 

Ellinwood, F. F. : Oriental Religions and Christianity. New York: 
Scribner, 1892. 8vo, $1.75. 
Contains a bibliography. 

Frazer, J. G. : The Golden Bough, a Study in Comparative Religion. 
London and New York: Macmillan, 1890. 2 vols., 8vo, 28s., $6.50. 

Hardwick, C. : Christ and Other Masters ; an Historical Inquiry into some 
of the Chief Parallelisms and Contrasts between Christianity and the 
Religious Systems of the Ancient World. London : Bell & Daldy, 
1855-57, 3 parts : pt. 4, Macmillan, 1858. 3d ed. by Proctor. Macmil- 
lan, 1874. 1 vol., p. 8vo, 10s. 6d 

A standard work from the religious side on the religions of India, China, Amer- 
ica, Oceanica, Egypt, and Medo-Persia. 

Hibbert Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion. London : Will- 
iams & Norgate, 1878 sqq. 8vo, each, 10s. Qd. 

1. The Religions of India, by Max Miiller, 1878. 

2. The Religion of Ancient Egypt, by Renouf, 1879. 

3. The Influence of the Institutions, Thought, and Culture of Rome on 

Christianity, and the Development of the Catholic Church, by 
Renan, 1880. 

4. Some Points in the History of Indian Buddhism, by Rhys Davids, 

1881. 

5. National Religions and Universal Religions, by Kuenen, 1882. 

6. Reformation of the Sixteenth Century in its Relation to Modern 

Thought and Knowledge, by Chas. Beard, 1883. 

7. The Native Religions of Mexico and Peru, by Reville, 1884. 

8. The Influence of the Apostle Paul on the Development of Christian- 

ity, by Pfleiderer, 1885. 

9. Celtic Heathendom, by J. Rhys, 1886. 

10. The Religion of Ancient Assyria and Babylonia, by Sayce, 1887. 

11. The Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church, 

by Hatch, edited by Fairbairn, 1888. 

547 



12 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

12. The Philosophic Basis of Belief, by Upton, 1889. 

13. The Religion of the Parsis, by Darmesteter, 1890. 

14. The Origin of the Conception of God, by Count D'Alviella, 1891. 

15. The Religion of the Ancient Hebrews, by C. G. Montefiore, 1892. 
Matheson, G.: The Distinctive Messages of the Old Religions. Edinburgh : 

W. Blackwood & Son, 1892. Pp. xiii. 342, p. 8vo, 5s. 

Perrot, G., et Chipiez, C. : Histoire de l'art dans antiquite, Paris : Hachette 
et Cie., 1881 sqq., each vol. 30 fr. Eng. tr., History of Art in Antiquity. 
Vol. I., Egypte (Eng. trans. Egypt. London : Chapman, 1883. 2 vols., 
8vo, 42s. New York : Armstrong, 1892. 2 vols., 8vo, $15.00). Vol. II., 
La Chaldee et TAssyrie (Chaldea and Assyria, 1883. 2 vols., 8vo, 42s., 
$15.50). Vol. III., Phenice, Cypre (Phoenicia and Cyprus, 1885. 2 vols., 
8vo, 42s., $15.50). Vol. IV., Asie Mineure (Sardinia, Judsea, Syria, and 
Asia Minor, 1890. 2 vols., 8vo, 36s., $14.50). Vol. V., Phrygie, Lydie 
et Carie, Lucie, Perse, 1889 (Phrygia, Lydia, Caria, and Lycia, 1892. 
8vo, 15s., $7.25. Persia. 1892, 8vo, $7.25). 

Records of the Past, being English translations of the Assyrian and Egyp- 
tian Monuments. London : Bagster, 1874-81. 12 vols., 16mo, each, 3s. 
6d. The 12th vol. has index to the whole set. (Complete sets scarce, 
$19.00.) Second series, 1889-1893, 6 vols., each 4s. Qd. Reprints in re- 
vised form several of the First Series Translations. 

Contents of 2d series (ed. by A. H. Sayce) : 

Vol. I. 1. The Dynastic Tablets and Chronicles of the Babylonians. 2. 
The Inscriptions of Telloh. 3. Sin Gashid's Endowment of the Temple 
E. Ana. 4. An Erechite's Lament. 5. Inscription of Tiglath-Pileser I. King 
of Assyria. 6. The Assyrian Story of the Creation. 7. The Babylonian 
Story of the Creation According to the Tradition of Cutha. 8. Babylonian 
Lawsuits and Judgments. 9. Inscription of Menuas, King of Ararat, in the 
Vannic Language. 10. The Ancient Hebrew Inscription of Siloam. 

Vol. II. 1. Inscription of Uni (of the Sixth Dynasty). 2. The Adven- 
tures of Sinuhit (of the 12th Dynasty). 3. The Legend of the Expulsion 
of the Hyksos. 4. The Stele of Thothmes IV. (of the 18th Dynasty). 5. 
Tablets of Tel - El - Amarna Relating to Palestine in the Century before 
the Exodus. 6. The Inscriptions of Telloh (continued). 7. The Assyrian 
Chronological Canon. 8. The Standard Inscriptions of Assur-natsir-pal. 9. 
Specimens of Assyrian Correspondence. 10. Akkadian Hymn to the Setting 
Sun. 11. The Moabite Stone. 12. Table of the Egyptian Dynasties. 13. 
List of Kings of Assyria. 14. Egyptian Calendar. 

Vol. III. 1. The precepts of Ptah-Hosep : The Oldest Book in the World. 

2. The Daughter of the Prince of Bakhtan, and the Spirit that Possessed 
Her. 3. Hymn to the Nile. 4. Letters to Egypt from Babylonia, Assyria, 
and Syria, in the Fifteenth Century B.C. 5. Ancient Babylonian Agricultural 
Precepts. 6. The India House Inscription of Nebuchad-nezzar the Great. 
7. Contract Tablets Relating to Belshazzar. 

Vol. IV. 1. The Official Life of an Egyptian Officer, from the Tomb of 
Amen-em heb at Thebes. 2. Hymn to Osiris on the Stele of Amon-em-ha. 

3. The Synchronous History of Assyria and Babylonia. 4. Inscriptions of 
Shalmaneser II. (on the Black Obelisk, the Kurkh Monolith, and the Gate of 

548 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 13 

Balawat). 5. A Votive Inscription of Assur-natsir-pal. 6. Inscription of 
Rirunionr-nivari III. 7. Votive Inscriptions. 8. Babylonian Contract Tablets 
with Historical References. 9. The Dedication of Three Babylonians to the 
Service of the Sun-God at Sippara. 10. The Great Rock-Inscription of 
Argistis on the Rock of Van. 11. Monolith Inscription of Argistis, King 
of Van. 

Vol. V. The Stele of Kuban. 2. A Stele of King Smendes. 3. The List 
of the Places in Northern Syria and Palestine Conquered by Thotmes III. 
4. Correspondence between Palestine and Egypt in the Fifteenth Century 
B.C. 5. Text of Ammisatana, King of Babylon, from about 2115 to 2090 B.C. 
6. An Early Tablet of the Babylonian Chronicle. 7. The Nimrud Inscrip- 
tion of Tiglath-Pileser III. 8. The Oracle of Istar of Arbela. 9. Three 
Documents Relating to the Sons of Nebuchadnezzar. 10. The Inscriptions 
Relating to the Rise of Cyrus and his Conquest of Babylonia. 

Vol. VI. (and last). 1. Historical Inscriptions of Ramses II. 2. The 
List of Places in Northern Syria and Palestine Conquered by Ramses II. and 
Ramses III. 3. Letters from Phoenicia to the King of Egypt in the Fifteenth 
Century B.C. 4. The Inscription of Assur-bel-kala. 5. Inscriptions of 
Sennacherib. 6. A prayer of Assur-banipal. 7. The Non-Semitic Version 
of the Creation Story. 8. The Cuneiform Tablets of Kappadokia. 9. The 
Kings of Egypt. 10. Contents of the New Series. 11. Index of Proper 
Names in the six volumes. 

Religious Systems of the World, by Various Authors. London : Sonnen- 

schein. 1889. 3d ed., 1893, 8vo, pp. 820, 10s. Qd. 
Reville, A. : Prolegomena to the History of Religion. Eng. trans, with an 

introduction by Max Muller. London : Williams & Norgate, 1885. 8vo, 

10*. 6d. French Orig., Prolegomenes de l'histoire de Religion. Paris : 

Fischbacher, 1880. 3d ed., 1881, 8vo, 6 fr. 
Robson. J. : Hinduism and its Relations to Christianity. Edinburgh and 

London: Oliphant, Anderson, & Ferrier, 1874. 2d ed., 1893. Pp. xi. 

269, sm. 8vo, 3s. 6d. 
Sacred Books of the East. Translated by various Oriental Scholars and 

Edited by F. Max Muller. Oxford Clarendon Press, 8vo. 1st Series, 

1879-85, 24 vols. 2d Series, 1886 sqq., 24 vols. Each, 10s. Qd. or 12s. Qd. 

New York : Macmillan, each, $2.75 or $3.25. Complete Set of the Series 

$65.50. 
The following are the volumes in the two Series : 

Vol. I. The Upanishads. Translated by F. Mas Muller. Parti. The .Oandogyau- 

padishad, The Talavakara-upanishad. The Aitareya-ara»yaka, The Kaushitaki- 

brahma»a-upanishad, and The Va^asaneyi-sawihita-upanishad, 1S79. Svo, $2.75. 

[See also Vol. XV.] 
Vol. II. The Sacred Laws of the Arya. As taught in the Schools of Apastamba, 

Gautama. YasisMfta, and Baudhayana. Translated by George Buhler, 1S79. Part I. 

Apastamba and Gautama. 1S79. $2.75. [See also Vol. XIV. J 
Vol. III. The Sacred Books of China. The Texts of Confucianism. Translated by 

James Lesge. Part I. The Shii King, The Religious portions of the Shih King, and 

The Hsiao King, 1879. $3.25. [See also Vols. XVI., XXVIL, and XXVUDL] 
Vol. IV. The Zend-Avesta. Translated bv James Darmesteter. Part I. The Ven- 

didad, 1880. $2.75. [See also Vols. XXTJI. and XXXI.] 
Vol. V. Pahlavi Tests. Translated bv E. W. West. Part I. The Bundahis, Bah- 

man Yast, and Shavast la-shavast, 1SS0. $3.25. 
Vol. VI. and IX. The Qur'an. Parts I. and LI. Translated by E. H. Palmer, 1880. 

$5.25. 
Vol.'vil. The Institutes of Vishnu, 1880. Translated by Julius Jolly, 1880. $2.75. 

549 



14 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

Vol. VIII. The Bhagavadgita with The Sanatsugatiya, and the Anugita. Translated 

by Kashinath Trimbak Telang, 18S2. $2.75. 
Vol. X. The Dhammapada. Translated from Pah by F. Max Miiller ; and the Sutta- 

Nipata, translated from Pali by V. Fausblol ; being Canonical Books of the Bud- 
dhists, 1881. $2.75. 
Vol. XI. Buddhist Suttas. Translated from Pali by T. W. Bhys Davids. 1. The 

Maha-parinibbana Suttantaj 2. The DoammaA.akka-ppavattana Sutta ; 3. The 

Teri^a Suttanta ; 4. The Akankheyya Sutta ; 5. The ifetokhila Sutta ; 6. The 

Mahasudassana Suttania ; 7. The Sabbasava Sutta, 18S1. $2.75. 
Vol. XII. The Satapatha-Brahmana, according to the Text of the Madhyandina 

School. Translated by Julius Eggeling. Parti. Books I. and II., 1882. $3.25. 
Vol. XIII. Vinaya Texts. Translated from the Pah by T. W. Rhys Davids and 

Hermann Oldenberg. Part I. The Patimokkha, The Mahavagga, I. -IV., 1881. 

$2.75. 
Vol. XIV. The Sacred Laws of the Aryas, as taught in the Schools of Apastamba, 

Gautama, VasishfM, and Baudhayana. Translated by George Biihler. Part II. 

Vasish£Aa and Baudhayana, 1882. $2.75. 
Vol. XV. The Upanishads. Translated by F. Max Miiller. Part II. The Katha- 

upanishad, the Mu?icZaka-upanishad, The Taittiriyaka-upanishad, The Brihadarara- 

yaka - upanishad. The Svetasvatara - upanishad, The Pras/za-upanishad, and The 

Maitrayawa-Brahmana-upanishad, 1884. $2.75. 
Vol. XVI. The Sacred Books of China. The Texts of Confucianism. Translated by 

James Legge. Part II. The Yi King, 1882. $2.75. 
Vol. XVII. Vinaya Texts. Translated from the Pali by T. W. Bhys Davids and 

Hermann Oldenberg. Part II. The Mahavagga, V-X. The -KTullavagga, I.-III. 

1883. $2.75. 
Vol. XVIII. Pahlavi Texts. Translated by E. W. West. Part II. The Dadistan-1 

Dinik and The Epistles of ManusAihar, 1882. $3.25. 
Vol. XIX. The Fo-sho-hing-tsan-king. A Life of Buddha by Asvaghosha Bodhisattva, 

translated from Sanskrit into Chinese by Dharmaraksha, a.d. 420, and from Chinese 

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Vol. XX. Vinaya Texts. Translated from the Pali by T. W. Rhys Davids and 

Hermann Oldenberg. Part III. The ETullavagga, IV.-XIL, 1885. $2.75. 
Vol. XXI. The Saddharma-pundarika ; or, The Lotus of the True Law. Translated 

by H. Kern, 1884. $3.25. 
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Sir6zahs. Ya-sts, and NyAyis, 1883. $2.75. 
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Khirad, Sikand-gumanik, and Sad Dar, 1885. $2.75. 
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Vol. XXV. Manu. Translated by Geo. Biihler, 1886. $5.25. 
Vol. XXVI. The /Satapatha-Brhamana. Translated by Julius Eggeling. Part II. 

1886 $3 25 
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Translated by James Legge. Parts HI. and IV. The Li Ki, or Collection of Trea- 
tises on the Rules of Propriety or Ceremonial Usages, 1886. Each, $3.25. 
Vols. XXIX. and XXX. The G^byasutras. Rules of Vedic Domestic Ceremonies. 

Translated by Hermann Oldenberg, 1890, 1892. Each, $3.25. 
Vol. XXXI. The Zend-Avesta. Part III. The Yazna, Visparad, Afrigan, and GShs. 

Translated by L. H. Mills, 1887. $3.25. 
Vol. XXXII. Vedic Hymns. Part I. Hymns to the Maruts, Rudra, Vayu, and Vat3. 

Translated by F. Max Miiller, 1891. $3.25. 
Vol. XXXIII. Minor Law Books. Part I. Narada, Brihaspati. Translated by J. 

Jolly, 1890. $2.75. 
Vol. XXXIV. The Vedanta Sutras, with the Commentary by Sankarakarya. Trans- 
lated by George Thibaut. Parti. 1890. $3.25. 
Vol. XXXV. The Questions of King Milinda. Translated by T. W. Rhys Davids. 

Part I., 1892. $2.75. 
Vol. XXXVI. Same. Part II. 1893. 
Vol. XXXVII. Pahlavi Texts. Translated by E. W. West. Part IV. Contents of 

the Nasks, 1892. $3.75. 
Vol. XXXVni. Vedanta-Sutras. Translated by G. Thibaut. Part II., 1893. 
Vol. XXXIX. The Texts of Taoism. Translated by James Legge. Part I. The TSo 

Teh King. The Writings of Kwang-Zze. Books i.-xvii., 1891. 
Vol. XL. Part II. Books xviii.-xxxiii. The Thai-Shang. Tractate of Actions and 

their Retribution. Appendixes i.-viii., 1891. Vols. XXXIX. and XL. $5.25. 
Vol. XLI. The Satapatha Brahmana. Translated by J. Eggeling. Part. HI., 1893. 
Vol. XLII. The Buddha Karita. Translated by E. B. Cowell, 1893. 

Saussaye, P. D. Chantepie de la : Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte. 
Freiburg im Br. J. C. B. Mohr, 1887-89. 2 vols., 8vo. 18 marks. Eng. 
Trans, of Vol. I. Manual of the Science of Religion. By Beatrice S. 

550 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 15 

Colyer Fergusson (nee Max Miiller). London : Longmans, 1891. 8vo, 

$3.50. 
Religion in China (Confucianism and Taoism). 

Beal, S.: Buddhism in China. London : S. P. C. K., 1884. 16mo, 2s. Qd. 
Same : A Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese. London : 

Trubner, 1871. 

Cf . Sacred Books of the East. 
Same : Buddhist Literature in China. London : Trubner, 1882. 8vo, 

10s. Qd. 
Chalmers, J. : The Speculations on Metaphysics, Polity, and Morality of the 

"Old Philosopher" Lau-Tsze. London : Trubner, 1868. 8vo, 4s. Qd. 
Douglas, R. K. : Confucianism and Taouism. London : S. P. C. K. , 1879. 

8vo, 2s. Qd. New York : Pott. $1.25. 
Edkins, J. : Religion in China. London : Trubner, 1859. 3d ed., 1884, 

8vo, 7s. Qd. 
Same : Chinese Buddhism. London : Trubner. Boston : Houghton, Mifflin 

&Co., 1880. 8vo, 18s. $4.50. 
Faber, E. : The Mind of Mencius. London : Trubner, 1882. 8vo, 10s. Qd. 
Same : A Systematical Digest of the Doctrines of Confucius, according to 

the Analects, G-reat Learning, and Doctrine of the Mean, with an Intro- 
duction on the Authorities upon Confucius and Confucianism. London : 

Trubner, 1875. 8vo, 12s. Qd. 
Same : Introduction to the Science of Chinese Religion. A Critique of 

Max Miiller and other Authors. London : Trubner, 1880. 8vo, 7s. Qd. 
Henry, B. C. : The Cross and the Dragon, or Light in the Broad East. 

New York : Randolph [1886]. 12mo, $2.00. 
Legge, J. : See Sacred Books of the East. Vols. III., XVI., XXVII. , 

XXVIII. , XXXIX. 
Same : The Religions of China : Confucianism and Taoism Described and 

Compared with Christianity. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1880. 8vo, 

6s. (New York : Scribner, 1881. $1.50.) 
Williams, S. Wells : The Middle Kingdom. New York : Scribner, 1848. 

2 vols., 8vo, 5th ed., rev., 1883, $9.00. 
Religion in India (Brahmanism, Hinduism). 

Barth, A. : The Religions of India. New York : Houghton, 1882. 8vo, 

$5.00. 
Bose, S. C. : The Hindoos as They Are. London : Stanford, 1881. 8vo, 

2d ed., Thacker, 1884, 7s. Qd. 
By a Hindu. 
Hunter, W. W. : A Brief History of the Indian People. London : Trub- 
ner, 1882, 20th ed. Oxford Warehouse, 1893, p. 8vo, 3s. Qd. 
Slater, T. E. : Life of Keshab Chandra Sen, and the Brahma Samaj. 

London : J. Clarke, 1884. Cr. 8vo, 3s. Qd. 
Miiller, Max : Chips from a German Workshop. London : Longmans, 1867- 

75. 4 vols., 36s. New York : Scribner. Each, $2.50. 
Vol. I. Essays on the Scieuce of Religion. 
Vol. II. Essays on Mythology, Traditions, and Customs. 
Vol. m. Essays on Literature, Biography, and Antiquities. 
Vol. IV. Essays on Comparative Philosophy, Mythology, etc. 

551 



16 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

Whitney, W. D. : Oriental and Linguistic Studies. New York : Scribner, 

1872-74. 2 Series (later ed.). Each, $2.50. 
Wilkins, W. J. : Modern Hinduism, being an Account of the Religion and 

Life of the Hindus in Northern India. London : Unwin, 1887. 8vo, 16s. 
Same : Daily Life and Work in India. London : Unwin, 1887. 8vo, 55. 
Same : Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic. London : Thacker, 1882. 

8vo, 10s. 6d. 
Williams, Monier : Religious Thought and Life in India, an Account of 

the Religions of the Indian Peoples, based on a Life's Study of their 

Literature and on Personal Investigations in their own Country. Part I. 

Vedism, Rrahmanism, and Hinduism London: Murray, 1883. 3d ed., 

1887 (title changed to Brahmanism and Hinduism), 4th ed., 1891, 8vo, 

18s. $4.50. Part II. Buddhism. With a Chapter on Jainism. The 

same, 1889, 8vo, 21s. 
. Authoritative. 
Same : Hinduism. London : S. P. C. K., 1877. 16mo, 2s. Qd. New York : 

Pott. $1.25. 
Same : The Holy Bible and the Sacred Books of the East. London : 

Seeley, 1887. 8vo, Is. 

Buddhism. 
Beal, S. : Buddhism in China. London : S. P. C. K., 1884. 16mo, 2s. Qd. 
Copleston, R. S. : Buddhism, Primitive and Present, in Magadha and in 

Ceylon. London and New York : Longmans, 1892. Pp. xv., 502, p. 

8vo, 16s. $5.00. 
Dods, M. : See under Mohammedanism. 
Hardy, R. Spence : A Manual of Buddhism in its Modern Development, 

translated from Singhalese MSS. London : Williams & Norgate, 1853. 

2d ed., 1880, 8vo, 21s. 
Same : The Legends and Theories of the Buddhists, compared with History 

and Science. London: Williams & Norgate, 1866. 2d ed., 1881, 8vo, 

7s. Qd. 
Oldenberg, H. : Buddha ; his Life, Doctrine, and Order. Eng. trans. 

London : Williams & Norgate, 1881. 8vo, 18s. 
Rhys, Davids T. W. : Buddhism, being a Sketch of the Life and Teach- 
ings of Cautema, the Buddha. London : S. P. C. K., 1877. 16mo, 10th 

1,000, 1882, 2s. Qd. New York : Pott. $1.25. 
Same : Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion, Illustrated by some 

Points in the History of Indian Buddhism. London : Williams & Norgate, 

1881. 8vo, 10s. Qd. New York : Putnam. $2.50. 
Schlagintweit, E. : Buddhism in Thibet, Illustrated by Literary Documents 

and Objects of Religious Worship, with an Account of the Buddhist 

Systems preceding it in India. London : Triibner, 1860. Fol., 42s. 
The standard book on Thibetan Buddhism. 
Scott, A. : Buddhism and Christianity : A Parallel and a Contrast. Edin- 
burgh : Douglas, 1890. 8vo, 7s. Qd. 
Thomas, E. : Jainism, or the Early Faith of Asoka. London : Triibner, 

1877. 8vo, 7s. Qd. 
Titcomb, Bp. : Short Chapters on Buddhism, Past and Present. London : 

Religious Tract Soc, 1883. P. 8vo, 3s. 

552 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 17 

ZOROASTRIANISM (PARSEEISM). 

Geiger, W. : Civilization of Eastern Iranians. London : Oxford Ware- 
house, 1885-87. 2 vols., 8vo, 24s. 

Geiger, W., and Spiegel, F. : The Age of Avesta. London: Oxford Ware- 
house, 1887. P. 8vo, 5s. 

Both the ahove are translated from the German. 

Haug. M. : Essays on the Sacred Language, Writings, and Religion of 
the Parsees. Bombay, 1862. 3d ed., by E. W. West. London : Trtib- 
ner, 1884. 8vo, 16s. 

Karaka, Doshabai Framji : History of the Parsis. London : Macmillan, 
1884. 2 vols. , 8vo, 36s. 

Zend-Avesta: In "Sacred Books of the East." Oxford : Clarendon Press, 
1880-89. 3 vols., 8vo. 33s. Qd. New York : Macmillan. (Parts 1 and 
2 trans, by James Darmesteter, $5.25 ; Part 3 by L. H. Mills, $3.25.) 
Religion op Ancient Egypt. 

Baedeker, F. : Lower Egypt. Leipzig and London : Baedeker. New York: 
Scribner, 1878. 2d ed., 1885. 16mo, 16s. $4.80. 

Same : Upper Egypt. 1892. 16mo, 10s. $3.00, pp. 390. 
These guide-books are scholarly productions. 

Brugsch, H. : Religion und Mythologie der alten Aegypter. Leipzig : 
Hinrich's Verlag, 1884-88. 2 parts, 8vo, 16 marks. 

Same : A History of Egypt under the Pharaohs. Translated from the Ger- 
man. London: Murray, 1879. 2vols.,8vo. 3d ed., condensed, and thor- 
oughly revised by (Miss) Mary Brodrick, 1891. 18s. 

Ebers, G. : Egypt, Historical and Picturesque. (Trans, from the German 
by Clara Bell.) London : Cassell, 1881-82. 2d ed., 1887. 2 vols., 4to, 
42s. 

Erman, A. : Aegypten und agyptisches Leben im Alterthum. Tubingen : 
Laupp, 1885-87. 2 vols., 8vo, 18 marks. Eng. trans, announced, 1892. 
This is the best book on the subject. 

Maspero, G. : Egyptian Archaeology. Trans, from the French ed. by Miss 
A. B. Edwards. London : Grevel, 1887. 2d ed., 1889. 8vo, 10s. Qd. 
Highly recommended. 

Same: Histoire ancienne des peuples d' Orient. Paris: Hachette et Cie., 

1875. 2d ed., 1876, 12mo, 5 fr. 
Same : Lectures historiques. Histoire ancienne — Egypte, Assyrie. Paris : 

Hachette et Cie., 1891. 12mo, 2.50 fr. 
Mariette, A.: Outlines of Ancient Egyptian History. Trans, by Miss Mary 

Brodrick. London: Murray. New York : Scribners, 1892. Pp. xxxi., 

155, 12mo, 5s. $1.00. 
Murray's Handbook for Travellers in Egypt. London : Murray. 8th ed., 

revised 1891. 12mo, 15s. 

Originally by J. G. Wilkinson ; a scholarly work. 
Perrot, G., and Chipiez, C. : History of Art in Ancient Egypt. London": 

Chapman, 1883. 2 vols, 8vo, 42s. New York : Armstrong, 1882. 2 

vols., 8vo, $15.00. 
Renouf, P. le Page : Religion of Ancient Egypt. London : 1880. 2d ed., 

1884. 8vo, 10s. Qd. 

The Hibbert Lectures of 1880. 

553 



18 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

Tiele, C. P. : History of the Egyptian Religion. London : Triibner, 1882. 
8vo, 7s. 6& 

The Religion of Thinis-Abydos, Heliopolis, the Old Middle and New Kingdoms, 
and from the Fall of the Ramessides to the Persian Conquest. From the Dutch by 
Z. Balingal. 

Wilkinson, J. G. : The Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. 

London : Murray, 1837-41. 6 vols., 4th ed., revised by S. Birch, 1878. 

3 vols., 8vo, 84*. Boston : Cassino, 1883. 3 vols., each $6.00. 
Classical Paganism. 

Boissier, G. : La Religion romaine dAuguste aux Antonins. Paris : 

Hachette et Cie., 1874. 3d ed., 1884. 2 vols., 8vo, 7 fr. 
Cox, G. W. : The Mythology of the Aryan Nations. London : Paul, 1870. 

2d ed., 1887, 8vo, 16s. 
Dollinger, J. J. I. v. : Heidenthum und Judenthum, Vorhalle zur Ge- 

schichte des Christenthums. Regensburg : Manz. 1857. 8vo. 4 thalers. 

[2d-hand, $2.55.] Eng. trans, by N. Darnell: The Gentile and Jew in 

the Courts of the Temple of Christ. London : Longmans, 1862. 2 vols., 

8vo, 21s. 

[Practically inaccessible Eng. trans., as copies are seldom offered for sale.] A 
masterpiece of learning ; a remarkable picture of the world at the Advent. 

Friedlander, L. : Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms in d. Zeit 
von August bis zum Ausgang der Antonine. Leipzig: Hirzel, 1862-71. 
6th ed. , 1889-90. 3 parts, 38 marks. 

Fustel de Coulanges : La Cite antique : Etude sur le Culte, le Droit, les 
Institutions de la Grece et de Rome. Paris : Durand, 1864. 5th ed. 
Hachette et Cie. , 1874. 3 fr. 50c. Eng. trans. The Ancient City : Study 
in the Religion, Laws, and Institutions of Greece and Rome. Boston : 
Lee & Shepard, 1874. 8vo, $2.50. 

Gladstone, W. E. : Juventus Mundi, the Gods and Men of the Heroic Age. 
•^ London : Macmillan, 1869. 2d ed., 1870. P. 8vo. 10s. 6d $2.50. 

Keim, Th. : Rom und das Christenthum. Eine Darstellung des Kampfes 
zwischen dem alten und dem neuen Glauben im romischen Reiche 
wahrend der beiden ersten Jahrhunderte unsrer Zeitrechnung. Hsg. v. 
H. Ziegler. Berlin : G. Reimer, 1881. 8vo, 10 marks. 

Authoritative work by the author of the great life of Christ from the moderately 
rationalistic side. 

Lanciani, R. : Pagan and Christian Rome. Boston : Houghton, Mifflin & 
Co., 1892. Pp. viii. 374, 8vo, $6.00. 

Mahaffy, P. J. : Social Life in Greece from Homer to Menander. London 
and New York : Macmillan, 1874. Cr. 8vo, 4th ed., 1890, 7s. 6d. $2.50. 

Same : Greek Life and Thought from the Age of Alexander to the Roman 
Conquest. London and New York : Macmillan, 1887. P. 8vo, 12s. 6c?. 
$3.50. 

Marquardt und Mommsen : Handbuch der romischen Alterthtimer. Leip- 
zig : Hirzel, 1870-82. 7 vols, in 9 parts, 8vo, 114 marks. Band vi. Das 
Sacralwesen. 2d ed. by G. Wissowa, 1885. 11 marks. 

Petiscus, N. H. : The Gods of Olympus, or Mythology of the Greeks and 
Romans. Trans, by Katharine A. Raleigh from the 20th orig. German 
ed. London: Unwin, 1892. New York: Cassell, 1893. Pp. xiv., 
271. 8vo, 7s. Qd. $2.00. 

554 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 19 

Preller, L. : Romische Mythologie. Berlin : Weidmann, 1863. 3d ed. by 

H. Jordan, 1881-83. 2 vols. , 8vo, 10 marks. 
Reville, J. : La Religion a Rome sous les Severes. Paris : Leroux, 1886. 

Svo, 7.50fr. 
Rosclier, W. H. : Ausfiihrliches Lexikon der grieckischen und romischen 

Mythologie. Leipzig : Teubner, 1884, sqq. 19th part, 1891. 
Seyffert, O. : Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, Mythology, Religion, 

Literature, and Art. London : Sonnenscliein. New York : Macmillan, 

1891. 2d ed., 1892, 4to, 21s. $6.00. 
Smith, W., Wayte, W., and Marindin, G-. E. : A Dictionary of Greek and 

Roman Antiquities. London : Murray, 1890-91. 2 vols., 8vo, each 

31s. Qd. Boston : Little, Brown & Co. Each $7.00. 
Smith, W. : Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 

London : Murray, 1843-48. 3 vols., r. 8vo, £4 4s. 
Wells, J. ; Christ and the Heroes of Heathendom. London : Relig. Tract 

Soc, 1891. P. 8vo, Is. 
Zeller, Ed. : Religion und Philosophie bei den Romern. Berlin: Liide- 

ritz, 1867. 8vo, 2d ed., 1872, 1 mark. 
Scandinavian, Celtic, and Teutonic Mythology. 

Anderson, R. B. : Norse Mythology, or the Religion of our Forefathers : 

containing all the Myths of the Eddas Systematized and Interpreted, 

with Introduction, Vocabulary, and Index. Chicago : Griggs, 1875. 2d 

ed., 1875. Svo, $2.50. 
Burton, J. H. : The History of Scotland from Agricola's Invasion to 1748. 

Edinburgh: Blackwoods, 1853-70. 9 vols., Svo, 2d ed., 1873, 8 vols., 

each 7s. 6^. Index vol., 3s. 

See first vol. for .Religion of the Ancient Celts. 
Grimm, J. L. C. : Deutsche Mythologie. Gottingen, 1835. 4th ed., E. 

H. Meyer. Berlin : Diimmler, 1875-78. 3 vols., 8vo. Each 12 marks. 
Eng. Trans. Teutonic Mythology, from the 4th ed., by J. S. Stallybrass. 

London : Sonnenschein, 1879-88. 4 vols., 8vo. Vol. I. 15s. Vols. 

II. -IV. each 18s. 

The standard work. 
Kalevala. The national Epic Poem of Finland. Translated into English 

verse by J. M. Crawford. New York : Alden, 1888. 2 vols., 12mo, 

$2.00. 
Mallet, P. H. : Northern Antiquities. London : Bohn, 1847. (In Bonn's 

Antiquarian Library, in print.) 

Contains trans, of the Prose Edda, by J. A. Blackwell. 
Rhys, J. : Lectures on Religion in Celtic Heathendom. London : Williams 

& Norgate, 1888. 8vo, 10s. 6d. * 

Same : Celtic Britain. London : S. P. C. K., 1882, 3s. 
Jewish Religion. Cf. section on Biblical Theology. 

Dollinger, J. J. I. v. : Gentile and Jew in the Courts of the Temple of 

Christ. London : Longmans, 1862. 2 vols., 8vo, 21s. 
See above. 
Duff, A. : Old Testament Theology : or the History of Hebrew Religion, 

from the Year 800 B.C. to Josiah, 640 B.C. Edinburgh : A. & C. Black, 

1891. Pp. 350, 8vo, 10s. 6d. 

555 



20 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

Edersheim, A. : Rites and Worship of the Jews. London : Relig. Tract 
Soc, n. e., 1890. P. 8vo, 2s. Qd. New York and Chicago: F. H. 
Revell Co., 1891. Pp. 176, 12mo, $1.00. 

Ewald, G. H. A. : The Antiquities of Israel. Eng. trans. London : Long- 
mans. Boston: Lockwood, Brook & Co., 1876. 8vo, 12s. Qd., $5.00. 

Hausrath, A. : Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte. Heidelberg : Basser- 
mann, 1868-73. 4 parts, 8vo. 2d ed., 1873-77, 39 marks. 3d ed., vol. 
i. , 1879, 10 marks. 

Montefiore, C. G. : The Religion of the Ancient Hebrews. London (New 
York: Scribner), 1893. 2d ed., 1893. Pp. 598, 8vo, 10s. Qd. $3.00. 
Hibbert Lectures for 1892. Critical school. 

Robertson, J. : Early Religion of Israel, as set forth by Biblical Writers 
and by Modern Critical Historians. Edinburgh : Blackwoods, 1892 
(Feb.). 2d ed. (Oct.), 1892. Pp. xii., 524, p. 8vo, 10s. Qd. 

Baird Lectures for 1889. Able presentation of tbe conservative side. 

Schiirer, E. : History of the Jewish People. Eng. tr. Edinburgh : T. & 
T. Clark, 1886-90. 5 vols., 8vo, ea. 10s. Qd. (New York : Scribner. 
$8.00 net.) 

Smith, W. Robertson : Lectures on the Religion of the Semites. 1st series : 
The Fundamental Institutions. Edinburgh : A. & C. Black, 1889. 
New York : Appleton, 1890. Pp. xi., 488, p. 8vo, 15s. $4.00. 
Mohammedanism. 

Arnold, J. M. : Islam : Its History, Character, and Relation to Christian- 
ity. London : Longmans, 1874. 8vo, 4s. 

This is the 3d ed. of Ishmael, or a Natural History of Islamism, and its Relation 
to Christianity (1859) ; the 2d ed. being entitled, The Koran and the Bible, or Islam 
and Christianity (1866). 

Brown, J. P. : The Dervishes. Philadelphia : Lippincott, 1867, 8vo, $3.50. 

Burton, R. F. : Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to Al-Madinah and 
Meccah. London : Longmans, 1855-56. 3 vols., 8vo. 4th (memorial) 
ed. London: Tylston, 1893. 2 vols., 8vo. Pp. 952, 12s. net. New 
York : Duprat (agent for Tauchnitz Series). 3 vols., $1.50 (unbound). 

Darmesteter, J. : The Mahdi, Past and Present. (Eng. trans, fr. French.) 
London : Unwin, 1885. P. 8vo, 4s. Qd. 

Dods, M. : Mohammed, Buddha, and Christ : Four Lectures on Natural 
and Revealed Religion. London : Hodder, 1877 ; 7th ed., 1893. Pp. 
236, p. 8vo, 3s. Qd. 

Hughes, T. P. : Dictionary of Islam. London : W. H. Allen, 1885. Roy. 
8vo, 42s. 

Koran, The: Translated by George Sale (1734). Many ed., e.g. Phila- 
delphia: Lippincott. 8vo, $2.75. London: Routledge, 1892. P. 8vo, 
3s. Qd. 

Tr. by J. M. Rodwell. London: Williams & Norgate, 1861. Cr. 8vo. 2d 
ed. Quaritch, 1876. 8vo, 12s. 

Tr. by E. H. Palmer (in the Sacred Books of the East). Oxford : Claren- 
don Press, 1880. 2 vols., 8vo, 21s. New York: Macmillan, $5.25. 

Lane, E. W. : An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern 
Egyptians. London: Knight, 1836. 2 vols., roy. 18mo. 5th ed. by 
E. Stanley Poole. Pub. Murray. 1 vol., med. 8vo, 1860. 2 Reprints, 
1871 and 1882, 12s. 

556 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 21 

Muir, W. : The Coran : its Composition and Teaching, and the Testimony- 
it bears to the Holy Scriptures. London : Society for Promoting Christian 
Knowledge, 1878. 12mo, 2s. Qd. 

Poole, Stanley Lane : Studies in a Mosque. London : W. H. Allen, 1883. 
8vo, 12s. 

Same : The Speeches and Table Talk of the Prophet Mohammed. London : 
Macmillan, 1882. 18mo, 4s. Qd. 

Smith, R. Bosworth : Mohammed and Mohammedanism. London : Smith 
& Elder, 1874. 3d ed., 1889, p. 8vo, 7s. Qd. 

Stobart, J. W. H. : Islam and its Founder. London : S. P. C. K., 1877. 
16mo, 2s. Qd. 

Wherry, G. M. : A Comprehensive Commentary on the Quran. To which 
is prefixed Sale's Preliminary Discourse, with additional notes and 
emendations. London: Triibner, 1882-86. 4 vols. , 8vo, 48s. 
Natural Theology. 

Argyll, Duke of : The Reign of Law. London : Strahan, 1866. 18th ed., 
1884. Cr. 8vo, 3s. Qd. New York : Lovell, 1888. 12mo, 25c. 

Barry, A. : Some Lights of Science on the Faith. London : Longmans, 
1893. Pp. 356, 8vo, 12s. Qd. 
Bampton Lectures for 1892. 

Bushnell, H. : Nature and the Supernatural, as together constituting the 
One System of God. New York : Scribner, 1858. (Several later edi- 
tions.) 12mo, $1.50. 

The object is to find a legitimate place for the supernatural, as included in the 
system of God, with ultimate reference to the authentification of the supernatural 
history. A brilliant book. 

Dawson, J. W. : The Story of the Earth and Man. London : Hodder & 

Stoughton, 1873. 10th ed., 1890. P. 8vo, 7s. Qd. New York : Harpers. 

12mo, $1.50. 
•^Same : Nature and the Bible. New York : Carter, 1875. 12mo, $1.75. 
Same : The Origin of the World according to Revelation and Science. 

London : Hodder & Stoughton, 1877. 4th ed. , 1886. P. 8vo, 7s. Qd. 

New York : Harper, 1877. 12mo, $2.00. 
Same : Modern Ideas of Evolution as related to Revelation and Science. 

London : Relig. Tract Soc. New York : Revell, 1890, 12mo. London : 

6th ed., 1891, 5s. $1.50. 

Principal Dawson is a believing, reverent Scientist. 
Drummond, H. : Natural Law in the Spiritual World. London : Hodder 

& Stoughton, 1883. 29th ed., 1890. Cr. 8vo, 3s. Qd. New York : Pott. 

12mo, $1.00. 

Numerous editions. Very able and suggestive, though probably the analogy is 
too much pressed. 

Fisher, G. P. : Manual of Natural Theology. New York : Scribner, 

1893. Pp. ix., 94, 12mo, 75c. 
Hettinger, Fr. : Natural Religion. Eng. trans. London : Burns & Oates, 

1890. Cr. 8vo, 7s. Qd. 
Janet, P. : Final Causes. Eng. trans. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1878. 

2ded., 1883, 8vo, 12s. 
Le Conte, J. : Religion and Science : a Series of Sunday Lectures on the 

Relations of Natural and Revealed Religion, or the Truths revealed in 

Nature and Scripture. New York : Appleton, 1874. 12mo, $1.50. 

557 



22 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

McCosh, J. : The Religious Aspect of Evolution. New York: Putnam, 

1888. Enlarged edition, 1890, pub. by Scribner. 12mo, $1.00. 
Macmillan, H. : Bible Teachings in Nature. London : Macmillan, 1866. 

24th ed., 1886, 8vo, 6s. $1.50. 
Same : The Ministry of Nature. Same, 1872. 6th ed., 1889, 6s. $1.50. 
Same : The Sabbath of the Field. Same, 1875. 5th ed., 1886. $1.50. 
Same : Two Worlds are Ours. Same, 1880. 4th ed., 1880, 6s. $1.50. 
Miiller, F. Max : Natural Religion. London and New York : Longmans, 

1889. 12mo, paper, 50c. 

Same : Physical Religion. London and New York: Longmans, 1891. P. 

8vo, 10s. 6d. $3.00. 
Same : Anthropological Religion. London : Longmans, 1892. Cr. 8vo, 

10s. Qd. 
Paley, W. : Natural Theology. (Revised to harmonize with modern science, 

by F. Le G. Clark.) New York : Pott, 1875. 12mo, $1.75. 

Another ed. by Bartlett. New York : Harpers. 2 vols., 12mo, $3.00. 
Stokes, Gr. G-. : Natural Theology. Edinburgh : A. & C. Black. New York : 

Macmillan, 1891. Pp. viii., 272, 12mo, 3s. Qd r $1.50. 
Valentine, M. : Natural Theology, or Rational Theism. Boston : Silver, 

Burdett & Co. , 1890. 12mo, $1.25. 
Christian Theology and Philosophy. 

Butler, Bp. Jos. : Three Sermons on Human Nature, or Man considered 

as a Moral Agent. London : 1726. Many editions since, e. g., with 

other works in Bonn's Library : 

1. Upon the Social Nature of Man. 
2-3. Upon the Natural Supremacy of Conscience. 
By common consent accepted masterpieces of cogent reasoning. 
Fisher, Gr. P. : The Grounds of Theistic and Christian Belief. New York : 

Scribner, 1883. 12mo, $2.50. 
Same : Faith and Rationalism. New York : Scribner, 1879. 12mo, $1.25. 

Highly recommended. 
Flint, R. : Theism. Edinburgh and London : Blackwood, 1877. 8th ed., 

1893, p. 8vo, 7s. 6d. New York : Scribner. $1.50. 
Same : Anti-Theistic Theories. The same, 1879. 3d ed., 1889, p. 8vo, 

10s. Qd. 
Lotze, H. : Microcosmus : Man and his Relations to the World. Edinburgh : 
T. & T. Clark, 1886. 2 vols., 8vo, 36s. 

Important, as Lotze was one of the most prominent philosophers of the century. 
McCosh, Jas. : Christianity and Positivism : Lectures on Natural Theology 

and Apologetics. New York : Carter, 1875. 12mo, $1.75. 
Stirling, J. H. : Philosophy and Theology. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 

1890. P. 8vo, 9s. 

Wace, H. : The Foundations of Faith. London: Pickering, 1880. 2d ed., 
1881, 8vo, 7s. Qd. 

Bampton Lectures, 1879. 



558 



BOOK II.— EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY.* 

PHILOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 

For the grammar of the Shemitic languages in general, see the " Porta 
Linguarum Orientalium" a series of manuals noted for brevity, comprehen- 
siveness, and clearness, instituted by J. H. Petermann »in 1840, now con- 
ducted by H. L. Strack, published in Berlin by Reuther. It embraces : 
Hebrew, by H. L. Strack, 4th ed., 1891, 4 marks (Eng. trans, by R. S. 
Kennedy. London : Williams & Norgate, 1885 ; 2d ed., 1889, 8vo, 4s. Qd.) ; 
Chaldee, by J. H. Petermann, 2d ed. , 1872, 4 marks ; Samaritan, by J. H. 
Petermann, 2d ed., 1873, 4 marks ; Arabic, by A. Socln, 2d ed. , 1889, 6 
marks; Syriac, by E. Nestle, 2d ed., 1888, 7 marks (Eng. trans, by R. S. 
Kennedy. London: Williams & Norgate, 1888, 2d ed., 1889, 9s.) ; Arme- 
nian, by J. H. Petermann, 2d ed. , 1872, 4 marks ; ^Ethiopic, by F. Pr^e- 
torius, 1886, 6 marks; Persian, by C. Salemann, 1889, 7 marks; Turkish, 
by A. MCller, 1889, 8 marks ; Assyrian, by F. Delitzsch, 1889, 12 marks 
(Eng. trans, by R. S. Kennedy. London : Williams & Norgate, 1889, 15s.) ; 
Egyptian, by A. Erman, 1893 ; Coptic, by G-. Steindorff, 1893. 

Also, E. Renan : Histoire generals et systhne compare des langues semit- 
iques. 1st part: Histoire generale. Paris: Imprimerie imperiale, 1855. 
4th ed. (Levy freres), 1864, 8vo, 12 francs. (2d part announced.) William 
Wright : Lectures on the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages. 
Cambridge : Cambridge Warehouse, 1890, 8vo, 14s. 

The great Hebrew grammars are by Wilhelm Gesenius, 25th ed., by E. 
Kautzsch, Leipzig : Vogel, 1889, 6 marks (best ed. in English by Edward C. 
Mitchell. London : Bagster, 1874 ; 2d ed., 1880, 8vo, 7s. 6d.) ; and Hein- 
rich Ewald, 8th ed., Gottingen : Dieterich, 1870, 3 thaler 20 gr. (only the 
Syntax has been translated, by James Kennedy. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 
1879, 8vo, 8s. 6d.). Of great merit are the grammars by William Henry 
Green (5th revised and enlarged ed. New York : J. Wiley & Son, 1889, 
8vo, $3) ; F. Bottcher (Leipzig : Bart, 1866-68, 2 vols., 8vo, 10 thaler 20 
gr. Designs to give an account of every anomalous case in the Hebrew Old 
Testament). A. B. Davidson (4th ed. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1881, 
8vo, 7s. 6r?.); and W. R. Harper (8th ed. New York: Scribners, 1888, 
8vo, s2). The last two are introductory. 

The best Hebrew lexicons are (1) that now preparing by Francis Brown 
(aided by C. A. Briggs and S. R. Driver), A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the 
Old Testament, based on the Lexicon of Gesenius, as translated by Edward 
Robinson. Boston and New York : Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1891, sqq. (2 
parts out, 1893, ea. 50c.) ; (2) that of Gesenius (11th ed. of the orig. by 
Miihlau u. Volck. Leipzig : Vogel, 1890, 8vo, 15 marks), as translated by 

* In the following list where no book title follows the author's name it is understood that 
the book bears the same general title as the section under which it is placed. 

559 



24 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

S. P. Tregelles (n. e. London : Bagster, 1852, 4to, 28s. Gd.) ; and by Edward 
Robinson (24th ed. Boston and New York : Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1889, 
8vo, $6) ; and (3) that of Julius Furst (3d ed. of the orig., by V. Ryssel. 
Leipzig: Tauchnitz, 1876, 8vo, 13.50 marks), as translated by S. Davidson 
(5th ed. Leipzig : Tauchnitz, 1885, 8vo, 21s.). Those who have no knowledge 
of Hebrew beyond the alphabet can use the copious and scholarly Analytical 
Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon (prepared by B. Davidson) (London : Bagster. 
New York: John Wiley & Sons, 12s., $4), in which every word in the 
Hebrew Bible is parsed and referred to its root or primary form. A good 
minor lexicon is that by Benjamin Davies, rev. by E. C. Mitchell, with 
English-Hebrew index. London: Asher, 3d ed. , 1880, 8vo, 12s. There is 
an excellent Hebrew and German lexicon prepared by Siegfried und 
Stade : HebrdiscTies Worterbuch zum Alien Testamente. Leipzig : Veit, 1893, 
8vo, 18 marks. (It has a German-Hebrew Index.) J. L. Potter published 
an English-Hebrew Index to the Robinson trans, of Gesenius (English- Hebrew 
Lexicon. Boston : Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1872, 8vo, $2). 

Of special helpfulness is S. R. Driver's Treatise on the Use of Tenses in 
Hebrew. Oxford : Clarendon Press, 3d ed., 1874, 1892, 16mo, 7s. 6d. $1.90. 

The best edition of the Hebrew Masoretic text is by S. Baer, published 
in parts (Leipzig, 1869, sqq.), with brief explanatory notes, not quite com- 
plete. Very much used is Hahn's edition, complete (Leipzig, 1867, $3). 

The standard Hebrew Concordance is in Latin, by J. Furst, aided by F. 
Delitzsch. Leipzig : Tauchnitz, 1840, f ol. , 18 thaler. Cheaper, but good, is 
S. P. Tregelles's Englishman's Hebrew and Chaldee Concordance to the Old 
Testament (London : Bagster, 4th ed., 1880, 2 vols., 8vo, £2 2s.). 

For Chaldee or Aramaic grammar see those by E. Kautzsch (Leipzig: 
Vogel, 1884, 8vo, 4 marks), Elias Riggs (rev. ed., New York: Randolph, 
8vo, $2), D. M. Turpie (London: Williams & Norgate, 1879, 8vo, 7s. 6&), 
and G. B. Winer (3d ed., by B. Fischer. Leipzig : Barth, 1882, 4.50 marks). 

The Massorah has been compiled by Christian D. Ginsburg. London : 
1880-86, 4 vols., fol. Delivered originally only to subscribers ; now to be 
had for about £25. 

For the study of the Talmud and the Targums see J. Levy : Neuhebraisches 
und Chalddisches Worterbuch uber die Talmudim und Midraschim. Leipzig : 
Brockhaus, 1875-89, 4 vols. , 4to, 140 marks. 

Jastrow, M. : A Dictionary of the Targumin, the Talmud Babli and Te- 
rushalmi, and the Midrashic literature. London : Triibner, 1880, sqq. To 
be in 12 parts. (New York : Putnam.) Part IX., 1893, 4to, ea. $2. 

Le Talmud de Jerusalem, traduit pour la, premiere fois par Moise Schwab. 

Paris: Maissonneuve, 1871-89, 11 vols., 8vo ; each, 10 fr. Eng. trans. 

London : Williams & Norgate, Vol. I., 1885, fcap 4to, 9s. 

There is an English trans, of the Targums of Onkelos and Jonathan Ben 
Uzziel on the Pentateuch, by J. W. Etheridge. London: Longman, 1862- 
65, 8vo, 17s. 

POLYGLOTT BlBLE. 

Stier u. Theile: Biblia Polyglotta. Bielefeld : Velhagen, 1855 ; 4th ed., 
1875, 36 marks. 

Gives Hebrew (O. T.), Greek (Septuagint and N. T.), Latin (Vulgate), German, 
and in N. T. vol. textual notes. Very convenient and accurate. 

560 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 25 



NEW TESTAMENT GREEK.* 

Grammars. 

Buttmann, Alexander: Trans, by J. H. Thayer. Andover: W. T. 
Draper, 1873 ; latest ed., 1883, 8vo, pp. 474, $2.75. 

Green, Samuel G. : London: Relig. Tract Soc, 1870; 4th rev. ed., 
1885, pp. xl. 564, p. 8vo, 7s. Qd. 

Green, Thomas Sheldon : London : Bagster, 1842 ; 4th ed. , 1877, pp. 
244, p. 8vo, 3s. 6& 

Winer, G. B. : Trans, by J. H. Thayer from the 7th ed., by Liinemann. 
Andover: W. F. Draper, 1869; latest ed., 1883, pp. 744, 8vo, $4. 

Same : Trans, by W. F. Moulton, from the 6th ed. Edinburgh : T. & T. 
Clark, 1870; 9th ed., 1892, pp. 848, 8vo, 15s. 
Greek Text. 

Scrivener, F. H. A.: Cambridge and London: 1887, 8vo, 7s. 6d. 

Tischendorp, C: Editio octava critica maior. Leipzig : B. Tauchnitz. 
Vol. I., 1869. Vol. II. , 1872 (these contain the text). Vol. III. Pro- 
legomena, by C. R. Gregory (in Latin), with additions by Ezra Abbot. 
Part I., 1884. Part II., 1890. 56.50 marks. Part III. (announced). 
Editio stereotypa minor (ed. by Gebhardt). Leipzig : B. Tauchnitz, 
1887, 16mo, 2 marks. 

Westcott and Hort : London : Macmillan, 1881, 2 vols., 8vo, 21s. 
(Vol. I., text ; Vol. II., introd. and appendix.) Text separately, with 
summary of the 2d vol., 1889, 5s. An edition for schools, with lexicon 
by W. J. Hickie, 1893, same, $1.90. Am. ed. with an Introduction by 
Schaff. New York: Harper (from duplicate plates), 1882 ; 3d ed., 1893, 
8vo, $1. Also a diglott ed. with the Greek text and the Revised 
Version. New York : Harpers, 1882, 8vo, $2.50. 

Weymouth, R. F. : The Resultant Greek Testament. London : Stock, 1886 ; 
2d ed., 1892, 8vo, 5s. New York: Funk & Wagnalls Co., 1892, $3. 
Dictionaries. 

Cremer, H.: Biblico- Theological Lexicon of the N. T. Eng. trans. Edin- 
burgh: T. & T. Clark, 1872; 3d ed. w. suppl., 1886, 4to, 38s. (Orig. 
7th ed., Gotha : Perthes, 1893.) 

Not a complete lexicon, but limited to words of theological bearing. 

Hickie, W. J. : London and New York : Macmillan, 1893, pp. 212, 18mo, 

3s. $1. 
Robinson, Ed. : Boston : Houghton, Mifflin & Co., n. e., 8vo, $4. 
Thayer, J. H. : Trans, of Grimm's ed. of Wilke. New York : Harpers, 

1886 ; 2d ed. corrected, 1889, 4to, $5. 
3. Concordance. 

Bruder, C. H. (in Latin): Leipzig: Bredt, 1853; 4th ed., 1888, 4to, 

25 marks. 
Englishman's Greek Concordance (by Geo. V. Wigram). 8th ed. London : 

1883, £1 Is. 

* On all that relates to the study of the New Testament the student will find exceptional aid 
in the annotated bibliography appended by the Rev. Prof. J. H. Thayer, to his Books and 
their Use (Boston : Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1893, pp. 43-88), which appeared after the pres- 
ent lists were substantially prepared. 

561 



26 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

Hudson, C. F. (ed. by Ezra Abbot) : Boston : Hastings, 1885, pp. 746, 
8vo, $2.50. 
Harmony of the Gospels (Greek text). 
Robinson, E. (ed. by M. B. Riddle) : Boston : Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 
1885, 8vo, $2. 
New Testament Synonyms. 
Trench, R. 0.: London and New York: Macmillan, 10th ed., 1,888, 

8vo, 12s. $3.50. 
Webster, W. : Syntax and Synonyms of the Greek Testament. London : 
Rivington, 1864, 8vo, 9s. 
New Testament. — The Language. 

Hatch, Edwin : Essays in Biblical Greek. Oxford : Clarendon Press, 
New York: Macmillan, 1889, 10s. 6d. $2.75. 
His lectures on the Septuagint. 
Simcox, W. H.: The Language of the New Testament. London : Hod- 

der, 1889, 12mo, 2s. 6d. 
Same : The Writers of the New Testament. Same, 1890, 12mo, 2s. 6d. 
Septuagint. — Text. 

Bagster's TJie Greek LXX. w. Eng. Trans. London: Bagster, 1851. 

New York : Wiley, 4to, 12s. $4. 
Swete, H. B. : Vol. I., Genesis — IV. Kings. Cambridge: University 
Press, 1887, pp. xxvii, 827. Vol. II., 1 Chron.— Tobit, 1891, pp. xvi, 
879. Vol. III. and last announced. Ea. vol. $2. 
Tischendorf, C. : Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1850; 6th ed., by E. Nestle, 
1880, 8vo, 15 marks. 

Concordances. 

Hatch, Edwin, and Henry A. Redpath. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 
New York: Macmillan. Part I., 1892. Part II., 1893 (unfinished; to 
have 6 parts), ea. $5. 

Includes the Apocrypha. 
Handy Concordance. London : Bagster (1887), 8vo, 15s. 

Gives references, no quotations, and does not include the Apocrypha. 
Trommius, A.: Amsterdam : 1718, fol., 2 vols. 
Will be superseded by Hatch. 
Biblical Archaeology. 
Bissell, E. C. : Biblical Antiquities. Philadelphia : Am. S. S. Union, 

1888 ; 2d ed., 1892, 12mo, $1.50. 
Ewald, H. : Ihe Antiquities of Israel. Trans, from the 3d Ger. ed. by H. 
S. Solly. London : Longmans, 1876, 8vo, 12s. 6d. 

The translation was revised by Dillmann, and much posthumous matter of 
Ewald' s inserted. 

Keil, C. F. : 2d ed. Frankfurt a. M. Bertelsmann, 1875, 8vo, 14 marks. 
Eng. trans. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1887-88, 2 vols., 8vo, 21s. $6. 

Biblical Geography. 
Maps. Hurlbut, J. L. : Manual of Biblical Geography. Chicago : Rand, 

McNally & Co. (2d ed., 1887), pp. 158, royal 4to, $2.75. 
Menke, Theodor : Bibelatlas in acht Bldttern. Gotha : Perthes, 1868, 

fol., 3 thaler 10 gr. 
Treatises. Baedeker's (by Socin) Palestine and Syria. Eng. trans. 

562 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 27 

Leipzig : Baedeker, 1872, 8vo, $7.50 ; 3d Ger. orig. (edited by I. Ben- 
ziger), 1891, 12 marks. 

Murray's (by J. L. Porter) Syria and Palestine. London : Murray, 
rev. ed., 1892, 2 vols., 8vo, 24s. 

Robinson, E. : Biblical Researches in Palestine and Adjacent Regions. 3d 
ed. Boston : Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1867, 3 vols., 8vo, $10. Sup- 
plement : Physical Geography of the Holy Land. Same, 1865, 8vo. 

Schafp, P. : Through Bible Lands. 2d ed., 1889. New York: Am. 
Tract Soc. ; London : Nisbet & Co., $2.50. 

Stanley, A. P. : Sinai and Palestine in Connection with their History. Lon- 
don : Murray, 1856 ; 4th ed., 1892, 8vo, 12s. 

Thomson, W. M.: The Land and the Book. New York : Harpers, 1859, 
2 vols.; n. e., richly illustrated, 1880-86, 3 vols., 8vo, $9. 

Biblical Natural History. 
Tristram, H. B. : The Natural History of tlie Bible. London : Society for 

Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1867 ; 5th ed., 1880, 8vo, 7s. Qd. 
Wood, J. G. : Bible Animals. London : Longmans, n. e., 1883, 8vo, 10s. 6d. 

Biblical Isagogic (Historico- Introduction to the Bible). 
In general. 
Briggs, C. A. : Biblical Study. 3d ed. New York : Scribners, 1892, 8vo, 

$2.50. 
Horne, T. H. : 14th ed., by Ayre and Tregelles. London: Longmans, 

1877, 4 vols., 8vo, 42s. 
Ladd, G. T. : The Doctrine of Sacred Scripture. New York : Scribners, 

1883, 2 vols., 8vo, $7. 
Same : What is the Bible ? Same, 1888, 12mo, $2. 

Old Testament. 
Bleek, Fr.: 5th ed., by Wellhausen. Berlin: G. Reimer, 1886, 8vo, 10.50 

marks. Eng. trans, from 2d ed., by G. H. Venables. London: Bell & 

Daldy, 1869, 2 vols., 8vo, 18s. 
Cornill, C. H. : Freiburg i. B. : Mohr, 2d ed., 1893, 8vo, 5 marks. 
Driver, S. R.: Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. New York: Scribners, 1891 ; 

3d ed., 1892, 8vo, 12s. $2.50. 
Keil, C. F. : 3d ed. Frankfort : Heyder. 1873, 6 marks. Eng. trans. 

Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1865, 2 vols. , 8vo, 21s. $6. 
Kirkpatrick, A. F. : The Divine Library of the Old Testament. London 

and New York : Macmillan, 1893, p. 8vo. 3s. $1. 
Reuss, E. : 2d ed. Braunschweig: Schwetschke u. Sohn, 1890, 8vo, 15 marks. 
Wright, C. H. H.: London: Hodder & Stoughton ; New York : Whittaker, 

1891, 12mo, 2s. Qd. 75c. 

New Testament. 
Bleek, Fr. : 4th ed., by Mangold. Berlin: G. Reimer, 1886, 8vo, 13.50 

marks. Eng. trans. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1870, 2 vols., 8vo, 21s. 
Dods, M. : London : Hodder ; New York: Whittaker, 1888, 12mo, 2s. M. 75c. 
Farrar, F. W. : Tlie Messages of the Books. London: Cassell. New York: 

Dutton, 1884, 8vo, 14s., $3.50. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1893. 
Godet, Fr. : Les Epitres de S. Paul. Paris: Fischbacher, 1893, 8vo, 12 fr. 

Eng. trans, announced. To be followed by vol. ii. on the Gospels. 

563 



28 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

Holtzmann, H. J.: 3d ed. Freiburg: Mohr, 1893, 8vo, 9 marks. 
Chief work on the critical side. 

Kerr, J. H. : Chicago and New York: Revell, 1892, 12mo, $1.50. 
Reuss, Ed.: 6th ed., Braunschweig: Schwetschke u. Sohn, 1887, 8vo, 12 

marks. Eng. trans., History of the Sacred Scriptures of the New Testa- 
ment, by E. L. Houghton. Boston : Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1884, 2 

vols., 12mo, $5. 

A good translation from the 5th ed., with bibliographical additions. 
Salmon, G. : 5th ed. London : Murray, 1891, 8vo, 9s. 
Weiss, B. : 2d ed. Berlin: Hertz, 1889, 8vo, 11 marks. Eng. trans. 

Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1887-88, 2 vols., 8vo, 21s. 

Special Introduction and Treatment of Special Points. 
Gloag, P. J. : Introduction to the Pauline Epistles. Edinburgh : T. & T. 

Clark, 1876, 8vo, 10s. Qd.; Introduction to the Catholic Epistles. Same, 

1887, 8vo, 10s. Qd.; Introduction to the Johannine Writings. London: 

Jas. Nisbet, 1891, 8vo, 10s. 6d. 
Green, W. H. : Moses and the Prophets. New York : Carter, 1883, 12mo, 

$1 ; The Hebrew Feasts. Same, 1885, 12mo, $1.50. 
Trench, R. C. : Notes on the Parables of our Lord. 15th ed. London : 

Kegan Paul, 1886, p. 8vo, 7s. 6d. 
Same : Notes on the Miracles of our Lord. 12th ed. London : Macmillan, 

1884, 8vo, 12s. 
Biblical Criticism. 

New Testament Text. 
* Schafp, Philip : Companion to tlie Greek Testament. 4th rev. ed. New 

York : Harpers, 1892, 12mo, $2.75. 
Scrivener, F. H. A. : 3d ed. Cambridge : Bell, 1883, 8vo, 16s. (4th 

ed. announced.) 
Warpield, B. B. : 3d ed. London : Hodder, New York: Whittaker, 

1892. 16mo, 2s. 6d. 75c. 
Canonic. 

Old Testament. 
Buhl, Frantz: Leipzig: Akad. Buchhandlung, 1891, 8vo, 6 marks. 
There is an Eng. trans. (Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1892, 8vo, 7s. 6d.) 

Davidson, S. : 3d ed. London: Kegan Paul, 1880, 8vo, 10s. 6$. 

Rationalistic, but very learned. 
Fuerst, J.: Leipzig: Dorffling, 1868, 8vo, 24 gr. 

From the Jewish standpoint. 

Green, W. H.: New York: C. S. Robinson, 1889, 12mo, $1. 

Anti-Kuenen. 

Ryle, H. E. : London and New York: Macmillan, 1892, 12mo, 6s. , $1.75. 

New Testament. 

Charteris, A. H.: Canonicity . Edinburgh: Blackwood, 1880, 8vo, 18s. 

Same: The New Testament Scriptures. London: Nisbet, 1882, 8vo, 7s. 6d. 

The first named book is based upon Kirchhofer's Quellensammlung (Zurich, 
1844), but is an improvement on it ; the second is a popular working over of the 
first. 

Reuss, E.: Eng. trans, from 2d ed., by David Hunter, Edinburgh : Gem- 

mell, New York: Dutton, 1884, 8vo, 9s. $3. 

The trans, embodies Eeuss's corrections and revisions ; so it is more desirable 
than the original. 

564 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 29 

* Westcott, B. F.: 6th ed. London and New York : Macmillan, 1889, p. 

8vo, 10s. Qd. $3. 
Zahn, T. : Leipzig: Deichart, 1888 sqq., 2 vols., 8vo. 
A masterpiece_of German learning. 
Hermeneutic. 
History. 
Diestel, L. : GeschicMe des alien Testamentes in der christlichen Kirche. 
Jena : Mauke, 1869, 8vo, 4 marks 20 pf. 
The standard book on the subject. 
Farrar, F. W. : History of Interpretation. London : Macmillan, New 

York : Dutton, 1886, 8vo, 16s. $3.50. 
Smith, W. Robertson: Tlie Old Testament in the Jewish Church. 2d ed. 

rev. Edinburgh : A. & C. Black, 1892, 8vo, 10s. 6d. 
Westcott, B. F. : The Bible in the Church. 10th ed. London and New 
York: Macmillan, 1889, 4s. 6d. 
Treatises. 
Cellerier, J. E. : Paris: Cherbuliez, 1852. Abridged Eng. trans., by 
Chas. Elliott and W. J. Harsha. New York: Randolph, 1881, 12mo, $1.50. 
Very conservative. 
Fairbairn, P.: Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1858, 8vo, 10s. Qd. 

Still much esteemed ; limited to N. T. 
Same : The Typology of Scripture. 6th ed. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 

1880, 2 vols., 8vo, 21s. 
Girdlestone, R. B. : The Foundation of the Bible, Studies in Old Testament 

Criticism. 4th ed. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1892, 8vo, 3s. 6d. 
A forcible presentation of the conservative position. 
Immer, A. : Eng. trans., by A. H. Newman. Andover: W. F. Draper, 1877, 

12mo, $2.25. 

One of the best manuals ; limited to N. T. 
Lias, J. J.: Principles of Biblical Criticism. London: Eyre & Spottis- 
woode, 1893, pp. ix, 262, p. 8vo, 3s. 6d. 
Treats whole Bible ; very conservative. 
Terry, M. S.: 2d ed. New York : Methodist Book Concern, 1885, 8vo, 

$3. i 

The fullest treatise on the subject in the language ; covers the whole Bible. 
The English Bible. — Text of the Authorized Version. 

The Holy Bible. London : British and Foreign Bible Society. New York : 
American Bible Society. 

Models of typographical accuracy ; various prices. 
The Cambridge Paragraph Bible. London : Rivington, 1873, 4to, 21s. 

Edited by F. H. A. Scrivener ; the most scholarly reprint of the Authorized Ver- 
sion. 

The Teacher's Bible. Pub. by the London, Oxford, and Cambridge presses. 

Various prices. 

These Bibles contain excellent aids, imparting an immense amount of informa- 
tion, written by leading English scholars. 

The Variorum Bible. London : Eyre & Spottiswoode (New York : E. & J. B. 

Young), 3d ed., 1888 ; with Apocrypha, 1892 ; with new aids to the study 

of the Bible, 1893 — thus completing the book. Prices from $4.50 to 

$16 ; with Apocrypha, $2 more. 

The fruit of prodigious labor on the part of Cheyne, Driver, Sanday, E. L. Clarke, 
A. Goodwin, and C. J. Ball (editor of the Apocrypha part), who present at the bot- 
tom of each page the corrections of the text and improved readings and transla- 
tions which have been suggested by the great historic translations, critical scholars, 
and commentaries. 

565 



30 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

IVie Variorum Bihle. Text of the Revised Version. 

TJie Holy Bible, containing the Old and New Testaments, translated out of the 

original tongues : being the version set forth A. D. 1611. Compared with 

the most ancient authorities and revised. Printed for the Universities of 

Oxford and Cambridge, 1885. 

The above is the only edition authorized by the American Committee of Revision. 
Many reprints. 

Other English Versions. 

E. T. Bartlett and J. P. Peters : Scriptures, Hebrew and Christian. 

New York : Putnam, 1886-92, 8vo, 3 vols., $5. 

Not the entire Bible, nor is the matter arranged as in the English Bible ; but the 
trans, is revised, often very felicitously, and the substance of the Bible is given in 
eminently readable form. 

A new translation of the entire Bible, edited by Paul Haupt, of Johns Hop- 
kins University, is announced. The first part of the Hebrew text from which 
it will be made, viz. : the Book of Job, edited by Carl Siegfried, with an 
English translation of its note, by R. E. Briinnow, appeared (Leipzig: Hin- 
richs ; London : D. Nutt ; Baltimore : Johns Hopkins Press) 1893. 
The English Version and Revision. 
Chambers, T. W. : A Companion to the Revised Old Testament. New 

York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1885, 12mo, $1. 
Eadie, J. : The English Bible. London and New York : Macmillan, 1876, 

2 vols., 8vo, 28s., $8. 
Mombert, J. I. : A Handbook of the English Version of the Bible. New 

York : Randolph, 1883, 12mo, $2.50. 
Schaff, P. : A Companion to the Greek Testament and the English Version. 

New York : Harpers, 1883, 4th ed., 1892, 12mo, $2.75. 
Westcott, B. F. : A General View of the History of the English Bible. 
London and New York : Macmillan, 1868, p. 8vo, 10s. Qd. 
Concordances to the Authorized Version. 
Cruden, A.: London, 1737. 

The reprints are numerous ; that published by Dodd & Mead (New York, 4to, 
$1) is unabridged, and is so far forth to be preferred, but the plates are much 
worn ; the best abridgment is that by John Eadie, and the best edition of that for 
Americans is published by the American Tract Society (New York, 8vo, $1.50). 

Strong, James: New York : Methodist Book Concern, 1894, 4to, $5. 

Announced ; aims at remarkable completeness ; takes in both the Authorized 
and Revised Versions. 
Young, Robert: Edinburgh: G. A. Young & Co. New York : Funk & 
Wagnalls Co., 7th ed., 1892, $5. 

Every word is arranged in alphabetical order, with its Hebrew or Greek original. 
Concordances to the Revised Version of the New Testament. 
Thoms, J. A.: London : S. P. C. K., 1882, 8vo, 5s. 

Embraces the readings preferred by the American Committee. 
The Students Concordance to the Revised Version. London: Bemrose. 
New York: Appleton, 1882, 4to, 7s. Gd., $2. 

American edition includes in an appendix the readings preferred by the Ameri- 
can Committee. 

COMMENTARIES. 

Whole Bible. 
Bible Commentary (commonly called The Speaker's Commentary). Ed. by F. 
C. Cook. London : Murray. New York : Scribners, 1871-81,10 vols., 
8vo, £11 9s., $30. Abridged by J. M. Fuller under the title, The 

566 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 31 

Student's Commentary. London : Murray, 1884-89, 6 vols., cr. 8vo, ea. 
7s. 6d. The part on the Apocrypha, ed. by Henry Wace, appeared Lon- 
don : Murray, 1888, 2 vols., 8vo, 50s. 

Very concise ; no homiletic ; aims at explaining all difficulties, and succeeds 
very well. The name by which it is commonly called came from the fact that the 
then Speaker of the House of Commons, the Eight Hon. J. Evelyn Denison, sug- 
gested the preparation of such a commentary as the answer of the Church of Eng- 
land to the views of Colenso and other radical scholars, which were beginning to 
disturb the conservative public. Consequently it was the work of bishops and 
other leading clergymen of the Established Church. Needs thorough revision. 

Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges. Edited by Dean (now Bishop) 

J. J. S. Perowne. London: C. J. Clay & Son. New York: Macmillan, 

1877-94, 40 vols., f. 8vo. 

Bp. Perowne was assisted by 20 scholars, among whom may be mentioned Payne 
Smith, Lumby, Davidson, Farrar, and G. G. Finlay. 

Commentary wholly Biblical. London: Bagster, n. d., 3 vols., 8vo, $12. 

Very useful and suggestive ; the Bible is made to interpret itself. 
Ellicott, C. J.: Commentary for English Readers by Various Writers. 

London : Cassell. New York : Dutton, 1877-84, 8 vols., 8vo, ea. 21s., $6. 
Expositor's Bible. Edited by W. R. Ni coll. London: Hodder. New York: 

Armstrong, 1887-95, 42 vols., 12mo, ea. 7s. 6d., $1.50. 

The dates are those of the appearance of the different vols., which are not, 
strictly speaking, commentaries, but rather expository lectures. They are by some 
thirty competent writers ; among whom are Marcus Dods, W. G. Blaikie, F. W. 
Farrar, A. Maclaren, S. Cox.. G. A. Smith, G. T. Stokes, E. Eainy, and W. Milligan. 

Gray, J. C: The Biblical Museum. London: Stock. New York: Randolph, 

1871-82, 15 vols., 8vo, ea. 3s. 6d., $1.25 (set for $8). 

- Does not reprint the text ; designed primarily for Sunday-school teachers' use ; 
contains numerous illustrative stories and helpful analyses. 

Henry, Matthew, London, 1710, 5 vols , fol. Best mod. ed. Nisbet, 

1866, 3 vols., imp. 8vo. 42s. Other eds. 

Highly valued for its practical and edifying remarks ; contains much wit and 
more wisdom ; is based upon a more critical study than appears. Henry did not 
live to complete further than the Acts ; the remainder is from several hands. 
Every minister should read Henry for style and matter. 

Jamieson, Fausset, and Brown : Edinburgh : Collins & Co., 1864-71, 

6 vols., 8vo, 60s. (Best Am. ed. Philadelphia : Lippincott, 1868-70, 

6 vols., 8vo, $15. Some eds. omit the Biblical text.) 

Those who have used this commentary unite in praising it. It is popular in the 
best sense. 

Lange, J. P. : Eng. trans. , edited by Philip Schaff , in connection with 

American divines of various evangelical denominations. New York: 

Scribners, 1864-72 ; n. e. 1880 sqq. 25 vols., 8vo, $75. 

Includes vol. on the Apocrypha by E. C. Bissell. Widely used and highly es- 
teemed. The work of 20 European and 50 American divines. 

Parker, Joseph : The People's Bible : Discourses upon Holy Scripture. 

London : Hazell. New York : Funk & Wagnalls, 1885 sqq. On the 

O. T. 17 vols., 8vo, ea. 8s., $1.50. 

Very remarkable, as coming from one man ; abounds in stimulating ideas ; very 
helpful to a preacher. 

Pulpit Commentary. Edited by Dean H. D. M. Spence and J. S. Exell. 
London: Kegan Paul, 1880 sqq., 8vo, ea. about 15s. (New York: 
Randolph, ea. $2.) 

The contributors number upward of one hundred, and the vols, to date number 
45. The plan is peculiar, inasmuch as the exegetical and homiletical sections are 
by different persons. The exegetes are well known. 

567 



32 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

Strack u Zockler : Kurzgefasster Commentar zu den Schriften des Al- 
ien und Neuen Testamentes, sowie zu den Apokryphen. Mfinchen : Beck, 
1886-93, 13 vols., 8vo, about 8 marks each. 

The best recent German commentary from the orthodox standpoint, the work of 
a company of scholars. It includes the Apocrypha (commented on by Zockler him- 
self, 1891, 8 marks). 

Whedon, D.D. : New York : Methodist Book Concern: N. T., 1860-75, 
8vo ; 2d ed., 1889, 5 vols., ea. $1.50. O. T., 1880-93, 8 vols., ea. $2. 
Prepared under Methodist auspices by different scholars. 

Wordsworth, Bp. Chr. : London : Rivington, N. T. with Greek text, 

1856-60, 4 parts, 8vo ; 2d ed., 1872, 60s. O. T., 1864-71, 6 vols, 8vo ; 

2d ed., 1868-72, 120s. 

A fine specimen of English patristic scholarship, but more successful as show- 
ing what the Fathers thought was the meaning of Scripture than as a commentary 
for critical and ordinary use. 

Commentaries upon the Whole Old Testament. 
Geikie (pron. gee-kee), C. : Hours with the Bible. London : Hodder, 
1880-85, 6 vols. , 8vo ; ea. 6s. New York : Pott, set $6. (Entirely re- 
written edition announced by Jas. Nisbet & Co., London, 1893.) 

Not a commentary exactly, yet so closely follows the text as to constitute a read- 
able substitute for one. 

Keil u. Delitzsch: Leipzig: Dorffling u. Franke, 15 vols., 8vo, various 
prices. Eng. Trans. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1864-78, 27 vols., ea. 
10s. 6d, or set 142s. New York: Scribners, ea. $3. 

The commentary on Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song, and Isaiah is from 
Delitzsch ; the rest from Keil. The work of Delitzsch is of much greater value. 
Since the above translation was made most of the volumes have appeared in new 
editions. 

Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Alien Testament. Leipzig : Hirzel, 

1838-62, 17 parts, 8vo, 20 thaler 17£ gr. Edited by Knobel ; n. e. of 

parts by Dillmann, Bertheau, Thenius, Nowack, Smend, and Steiner. 

Perhaps the best purely exegetical and explanatory commentary on the Old Tes- 
tament ever made. The new editions by Dillmann and others are particularly valu- 
able. 

Nowack, W. (ed.) : Hand-Kommentar zum Alten Testament. Gottingen : 

Vandenhoeck u. Ruprecht, 1892 sqq., 8vo. 
To be in some 8 vols, at about 8 marks each. 

Commentaries on the New Testament. 

Alford, Henry: The Greek Testament. London (6th ed., Vols. I., 

II., 1868-71, £2 12s.; 5th ed., Vol. III., 1871, 18s.; 4th ed., Vol. IV., 

1870, £1 12s.): 4 vols., 8 vo. 

Eetains its place as on the whole the best complete commentary upon the Greek 
text : utilizes German learning, but not slavishly dependent upon it. 

American Commentary. Philadelphia : American Baptist Publication 
Soc, 1881 sqq., 12 vols., 8vo, ea. $2. Edited by Alvah Hovey, with 
competent scholars. 

Benoel, J. A.: Gnomon of the New Testament. Eng. trans, by A. R. 

Fausset. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark [1857-58], 3 vols., 8vo, 24s. Also 

by Charlton T. Lewis and M. R. Vincent. Philadelphia : Perkenpine, 

7th ed., 1874 ; 2 vols., 8vo, $9. 

A marvel of condensation, point, and spiritual insight ; must always remain a 
classic. Should be read in Latin to appreciate fully its beauties. 

Lipsius (R. H.), Holtzmann (H. J.), Schmiedel (P. W.), and VON 
Soden (H.) : Handcommentar zum Neuen Testament. Freiburg im Br.: 
Mohr, 1889-91, 4 vols., 8vo, 2d ed., 1892-93, 33 marks. 
Moderately rationalistic, but clear and pointed. 

568 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 33 

Meyer, H. A. W.: Gottingen : Yandenhoeck u. Rupreclit, 1829 sqq.; 
latest ed. by himself, 1869-74, 9 parts, 70 marks. Eng. trans. Edin- 
burgh : T. & T. Clark, 1872-82, 20 vols., 8vo, ea. 10s. 6d. Am. ed. 
by different scholars. New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1883-87, 11 vols., 

8vo, ea. $3. 

Those who desire to know what Meyer says should consult the American edition, 
which is a great improvement upon the mere English translation. The German 
new editions of Meyer, by Weiss and others, are radically changed by the editors, 
who thereby make Meyer the unconscious vehicle of their opinions. It cannot, 
however, be denied that Weiss and his coadjutors are admirable scholars, and 
their commentaries, if only they were not called by Meyer's name, would receive 
unqualified commendation. 

Perowxe, J. J. S. (ed.).- Tlie Cambridge Greek Testament for Schools and 

Colleges. London : C. J. Clay & Son. New York : Macmillan, 1881 sqq. 
By such scholars as Maclear. Farrar, and Lumby. Gives a revised Greek text 
and English notes. To be finished in some 14 vols. 10 are out. 

Sadler, M. F. : Church Commentary on the New Testament. London : 

Bell, 1882-93. 12 vols., ea. Is. 6d. 
Much admired by high Anglicans. 
Schaff, Philip : International Illustrated Commentary. New York: Scrib- 
ners. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1879-82, new ed., 1892, 4 vols., 8vo, 

ea. 18s., $6. 

By such scholars as Moulton, Milligan, Riddle, Howson, Dykes, and Dods. Il- 
lustrated and with maps. Reissued in revised form, and on the basis of the Revised 
Version, under the title, International Revision Commentary on the Xew Testa- 
ment. New York : Scribners, 1882-83, 6 vols., 16mo (Matthew to Romans), $7. 

Commentaries upon Particular Books.* 

Genesis. 

Delitzsch, Fr. : Eng. trans, from 4th Ger. orig. ed. Edinburgh: T. & T. 

Clark, 1888-89, 2 vols., 8vo, 21s. 

Murphy, J. G.: Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1863, 8vo, 10s. M. 

Psalms. 

Cheyxe, T. K. : The Praises of Israel, a New Translation. London: Kegan 

Paul, 1888, 8vo, 16s. 

Same: Bampton Lectures on the Psalter ; same, 1891, 8vo, 16s. 

De Witt, J. : 3d ed. New York : Randolph, 1890, 8vo, $2. 

A very successful translation. 
Perowxe, J. J. S.: 6th ed. London: Bell & Son, 1886, 2 vols., 8vo, 34s. 

The standard. 
Spurgeon, C. H. (and others): The Treasury of David. London: Pass- 
more. New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1870-85, 7 vols., 56s. $14. 
Particularly valuable for its Puritanic lore. 
Isaiah. 

Alexander, J. A.: n. e. New York: Scribners, 2 vols., 12mo, $4. 
Cheyne, T. K. : 3d ed. London: Kegan Paul, 1884, 2 vols., 8vo, 25s. 
Minor Prophets. 

Pusey, E. B.: 3d ed. Oxford: Parker, 1877, 4to, 31s. 6(7. 
Wright, C. H. H. : Zechariah and his Prophecies. London: Hodder, 1879, 
8vo, 14s. 
New Testament in general. 
Vlxcext, M. R. : Woi'd Studies in the New Testament. New York: Scrib- 
ners, 1887-94, 4 vols., 8vo, $16. 

Very valuable ; quite original and suggestive ; endeavors to put the mere English 
student of the N. T. on the level of the Greek student. 

* The mention of the general commentaries renders it less necessary to go over all the Bibli- 
cal books. Only a very few of the many excellent special commentaries can be given here. 

569 



34 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

The best recent commentators unmentioned in the previous lists are James 
Morison, on Matthew, 6th ed. London: Hodder, 1890, 8vo, 14s.; Mark, 6th. 
ed., same, 1889, 8vo, 12s. 

Fr. Godet, on Luke, French orig. 3d ed. , 1888-89, 2 vols. , 8vo, 20 f r. Eng, 
trans, from 2d ed. Edinburgh trans. (T, & T. Clark), ed. by John Hall 
New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1881. John, same, Am. ed. by Timothy Dwight 
1886, 2 vols. ; Romans, 2d ed. orig., same, Am. ed. by T. W. Chambers, 1883 
ea. $3 ; First Corinthians, Edinburgh trans. (T. & T. Clark), 1886-87, 2 vols. 
21s. $6. 

H. P. Liddon, on Romans. London and New York: Longmans, 1893, pp 

300, 8vo, 14s. $4. 
A. P. Stanley, on Corinthians, 5th ed. London : Murray, 1882, 8vo, 18s 
C. J. Ellicott (London and New York: Longmans, 8vo), on First Co' 
rinthians, 1887, 16s., $5.50 ; Oalatians, 2d ed., 1859, 8s. 6&, $3 ; Ephe 
sians, 5th ed., 1884, 8s. Qd., $3 ; Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon, 
5th ed., 1888, 10s. 6&, $3.75; Thessalonians, 4th ed., 1880, 7s. 6d 
$2.75; Pastoral Epistles, 5th ed., 1883, 10s. 6& $3.75. 
J. A. Beet (London: Hodder, 8vo), on Romans, 6th ed., 1887, 7s. Qd. 
Corinthians, 5th ed. , 1885, 10s. 6d; Oalatians, 3d ed., 1891, 5s. ; Ephe 
sians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon, 1891, 7s. 6d. 
J. B. Lightfoot (London and New York: Macmillan, ea. 12s., $3.25), on 
Oalatians, 10th ed., 1890; Philippians, 9th ed., 1886 ; Colossians and 
Philemon, 9th ed., 1890. 
John Eadie, on Oalatians (Glasgow: Maclehose), 1869, 8vo, 10s. Qd. Ephe- 
sians, 3d ed., 1883 ; Philippians, 2d ed., 1884; Colossians, 2d ed., 1884 
(the n. e. of these 3 are by W. Young, Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. New 
York : Scribners, ea. 10s. 6d. $3.75) ; Thessalonians, posthumous ed. by 
W. Young (London : Macmillan), 1877, 8vo, 12s. $3.50. 
T. C. Edwards, on First Corinthians. London : Hodder, 1st and 2d ed. , 
1885, 8vo, 14s. New York: Armstrong & Son, 2d ed., 1886, $2.50. 



570 



BOOK III.— HISTOEICAL THEOLOGY. 

GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE LITERATURE. 

A. ALL PERIODS. 

Bratke, E. : Wegweiser zur QueUen und Litter aturkunde der Kirchen- 

geschichte. Gotha : Perthes, 1890, 8vo, 6 marks. 
Fisher, J. A. : A Select Bibliography of Ecclesiastical History. Boston : 

Heath, 1885, 16mo, 25 cts. 
Nirschl, J. : Propadeutik der Kirchengeschichte. Mainz : Kirchheim, 

1888, 8vo, 4.40 marks. 

B. MEDIAEVAL PERIOD. 

Potthast, A.: Bibliotheca historica medii avi. Wegweiser durch die Oe- 
schichtswerke des europdischen Mittelalters wn 375-1500. Berlin : We- 
ber, 1868, 8vo, 6 thaler. 

Wattenbach, W. : Deutschlands OeschichtsqueUen im Mittelalter bis zur 
Mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts, 5th ed. Berlin : Hertz, 1886, 2 vols., 8vo, 17 
marks. 

SOURCES.— TEXTS. 

A. BIBLICAL PERIOD. 
The Bible (cf. Book II.). 

Josephus : Eng. trans, in Bohn's Library, 5 vols., $5.00; best ed. of orig. 

text by B. Niese, Berlin : Weidmann, 1885 sqq. (Vol. V., 1892), 8vo ; and 

by 1. Bekker, 2d ed., by S. A. Naber, Leipzig : Teubner, 1888 sqq. 

(Vol. IV., 1893), 8vo. 
Philo : Eng. trans, in Bohn's Library, 4 vols., $6.00; ed. of the orig. 

text, Leipzig : Teubner, 1851-52, 5 vols., 16mo, ea. 15 gr. 

B. PATRISTIC AND MEDIAEVAL PERIOD. 

I. Christian Writers, to the Middle Age. 
Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum. Wien : Gerold's Sohn, 1866 

sqq., 8vo, Vol. XXV., 1892, different prices. 
Migne, J. P.: Patrologia. Petit Montrouge (Paris) : Migne, 1844-66 ; n. e., 

1878 sqq. Greek Fathers, 167 vols. ; Latin Fathers, 222 vols. ; ea. about 

10 fr. 

Cheap reprints of the great Benedictine and other good editions. Includes the 
two principal mediaeval theologians, Peter Lombard and Thomas Aquinas. 

EXGLISH TRANSLATION OF THE PATRISTIC SOURCES. 
The Ante-Nicene Fathers, ed, by Alexander Roberts and James Donald- 
son. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1867-71, 24 vols., ea. $3.00. Am. ed. 
by A. C. Coxe, New York : Christian Literature Co., 1885-87, 9 vols, (in- 
cluding index vol.), 8vo, $31.00. 

The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fatliers. First Series, ed. by Philip Schaff, 

571 



36 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

New York ; same, 1886-89, 14 vols. (Augustin in 8 and Chrysostom in 
6 vols.), 8vo, $49.00. Second Series, ed. by Philip ScliafE and Henry 
Wace ; same, 1890 sqq. (Vol. I., Eusebins ; II., Socrates and Sozomen; 
III., Theodoret, Jerome, Gennadius, and Rufinus; IV., Athanasius ; V., 
Gregory of N'yssa ; VI., Jerome : to be followed by seven more). Each. 

$4.00. 

The First Series is a revised reprint of the Clark and Oxford series respectively ; 
the Second Series is largely original, and is remarkably well done. 

II. Writers of the Middle Age. 

Horoy, : Medii mvi bibliotheca patristica, seu ejusdem temporis Patrolo- 

gia, ab anno 1216 usque ad Concilii Tridentini tempora. Paris : Biblio- 
theque ecclesiastique, 1879 sqq., 8vo, ea. 10 fr. 
A continuation of the Migne series. 

Special Classes op Writers op the Patristic Period. 

Apostolic Fathers. 
v. Gebhardt, Harnack, and Zahn: 2d ed. Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1876, 

3 parts, 8vo, 24.50 marks. 
Hepele-Funk: Tubingen : Laupp, 5th ed., 1888, 2 vols., 8vo, 18 marks. 
♦Lightfoot, J. B.: London and New York: Macmillan, 1891, 8vo, 16s., 

$4.00. 

With English trans, and notes, ed. by J. R. Hanner. 

Same : Clement of Home, 2d ed.; same, 1890, 2 vols., 8vo, 32s., $10.00. 
Same : Ignatius and Polycarp, 2d ed. ; same, 1889, 3 vols., 48s., $16.50. 

Apologists of the 2d Century. 
Otto, J. C. T. de : 3d ed. Jena: Fischer, 1876-81, 5 vols., 8vo, 39.50 

marks. 

C. REFORMATION PERIOD. 

Luther's Works : Erlangen and Erfurt : Heyder, 1826-73, 67 German 

and 33 Latin vols. 

The above is the best edition for general use. For scholarly purposes it will 
be superseded by that edited by J. K. F. Knaake. Weimar : Bohlau, 1883 sqq. 
(9 vols, in 10 years). 

Melanchthon's Works, ed. by Bretschneider and Bindseil. Halle : 

Schwetschke, 1832-50, 28 vols., 8vo, 112 thaler. 
Zwingli's Works, ed. by Schuler and Schulthess. Zurich : Schulthess, 

1828-61, 9 vols., 8vo, 17 thaler 27 gr. 
Calvin's Works, ed. by Baum, Cunitz, and Reuss. Braunschweig : 

Schwetschke, 1863 sqq., 8vo, ea. 12 marks (Vol. 49, 1893). Eng. trans., 

Edinburgh : Calvin Trans. Soc, 1842-53, 51 vols., 8vo. 

WORKS WRITTEN FROM THE SOURCES. 

History op Israel. 

Ewald, H. : Eng. trans. London : Longman, 1867-87, 8 vols., 8vo, 
118s. 

Goes down to establishment of Christianity. 
Graetz, H. : Eng. trans. London: Nutt, 1891-92, 5 vols., 8vo, ea. 
10s. 6tf. Am. reprint, Philadelphia : Jewish Publication Soc, ea. $3.00. 
The standard Jewish treatise ; goes down to modern times. 
Hosmer, J. K. : Story of the Jews. New York : Putnam, 1886, 12mo, 
$1.50. 

572 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 37 

Hunter, P. H. : After tlie Exile. London: Oliphant, 1890, 2 vols., 

12mo, 10s. (New York : Scribner, $4.00). 
Kittel, R. : Geschichte der Hebrder. Gotha : Perthes, 1892, 8vo, 13 
marks. 

Down to Babylonish exile. 
Kuenen, A. : Eng. trans. The Religion of Israel. London : Williams & 
Norgate, 1874-75, 3 vols. , 8vo, 31s. Qd. 

To the fall of Jerusalem. The chief work on the Dutch critical side. 
Milman, H. H. : Latest ed. London: Murray, 1883, 3 vols., p. 8vo, 

12s. 

Scholarly, yet popular ; goes down to modern times. 

Morrison, W. D. : Story of the Jews under Rome. New York : Putnam, 

1890, 12mo, $1.50. 
Renan, E. : Eng. trans. London : Chapman. Boston : Roberts, 1888- 

94, 4 vols.. 8vo, ea. 14s., $2.50. 

Sceptical ; goes down to Christian era. 

Schurer, E. : History of the Jewish People at the Time of Christ. Eng. 
trans. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1886-90, 5 vols., 8vo, ea. 10s. Gd. 
(New York: Scribner, $8.00 net). 
Stade, B. : Geschichte des Volkes Israel Berlin : Grote, 1887-88, 8vo, 
2 vols. 

Critical ; goes down to Christian era. 
Stanley, A. P. : Latest ed. Murray, 1884, 3 vols., 8vo, ea. 6s. 

Brilliant ; suggestive ; somewhat rationalistic. 
Wellhattsen, J. : Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels. Berlin : 8vo, 
1878,3d ed., 1886. Eng. trans. History of Israel. London: A. & C. 
Black, 1885, 8vo, 15s. 
Same : Sketch of the History of Israel and Judah. 3d ed ; same, 1891, 
p. 8vo, 5s. 

Reprint with additions of his art. in 9th ed. of the JEncyclopcedia Britannica. 

History of New Testament Times. {Of. History of the Apostolic Age.) 

Delitzsch, F. : Jewish Artisan Life in tlie Time of Jesus. Eng. trans. 
New York : Funk & Wagnalls, 1883, 16mo, 15 cts. — A Day in Caper- 
naum. Eng. trans., by G. H. Schodde. New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 
1887, 12mo, 75 cts. 

Drummond, J. : TJie Jewish Messiah. London : Longmans, 1877, 8vo, 
15s. 

Hausrath, A. : Eng. trans. History of New Testament Times. London : 
Williams & Norgate, 1878-80, 2 vols., 8vo, 21s. Orig. Miinchen : Bas- 
sermann, 1868-73, 2d ed. 1873-77, 4 pts . 8vo, 39 marks. Vol. 1. 3d 
ed., 1879, 10 marks. 

Merrill, S. : Galilee in the Time of Christ. New York : Whittaker, 1885, 
cr. 8vo. $1.00. 

Schurer, B. : Eng. trans. History of the Jewish People at the Time of 
Christ. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1886-90, 5 vols., 8vo, ea. 10s. 6d. 
(New York: Scribner, $8.00 net). 

Stanton, V. H. : Tlie Jewish and Christian Messiah. Edinburgh : T. & 
T. Clark, 1886, 8vo, 10s. 6d. 

Stapfer, E.: Eng. trans. Palestine at tlie Time of Christ. London : 
Hodder. New York : Armstrong, 1887, 8vo, 9s., $2.50. 

573 



38 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

The Life of Christ. 
English Works : 
Andrews. S. J.: Wholly rev. ed. New York : Scribner, 1891, 8vo, 

$2.50. 

Very valuable in chronology and topology. 
Edersheim, A. (d. 1889) : 3d ed. London : Longmans. New York : 
Randolph, 1886, 2 vols., 8vo, 24*., $6.00. 
Particularly full upon rabbinical matters. 
Farrar, F. W. : Popular ed. London : Cassell, 1881, 8vo, 7*. 6d. 
Rhetorical, but instructive and scholarly. 

Geikie, C. : New ed. London : Hodder, 1883, 8vo, 7s. 6d. 

Stalker, J. : New ed. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1884, p. 8vo, 3*. 6d. 
(60 cts.) 

Mere outline, but based upon thorough study. 
German : 

Beyschlag : Halle : Strien, 1886, 2 pts. , 8vo, 18 marks. 

Hase : Eng. trans, by J. F. Clarke. Boston : American Unitarian Associ- 
ation, 1881, 12mo, 75 cts. 

Keim : Eng. trans. London : Williams & Norgate, 1873-79, 4 vols., 
8vo, ea. $4.75. 

Reverently rationalistic. 

Lange, J. P. : Eng. trans. New ed. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1864, 
6 vols., 8vo, 28s., $11.20. 

Neander, A. : Eng. trans. In Bonn's Library, $1.00. 

Strauss, D. F. : Eng. trans, of the popular ed. (that of 1864). London : 
Temple Co., 1892, 8vo, 2s. Qd. ; n. e. of Geo. Eliot's trans. (1846) of the 
large ed. (that of 1835-36, 2 vols.), London : Sonnenschein, 1893, pp. 
806, 8vo, 15s. 
Sceptical. 

Uhlhorn, G. : Das Leben Jesu in seinen neueren Darstellungen. 4th ed. 

Stuttgart : Gundert, 1892, 12mo, 2 marks. 

Review of works of Renan, Strauss, Keim, Delff, Weiss, and Beyschlag. 
Weiss, B. : Eng. trans. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1883-84, 3 vols., 

8vo, 31s. 6d. (New York : Scribner, $9.00). 

French : 
Pressense : Eng. trans. 4th ed. London : Hodder & Stoughton, 1871, 

cr. 8vo, 7s. M. 
Renan, E. : Eng. trans., sev. ed., e. g. London : Triibner, 1887, p. 8vo, 

Is. 

Sceptical. 

MORAL CHARACTER OF CHRIST. 

Hughes, T.: The Manliness of Christ. London: Macmillan, 1880, p. 8vo, 

4s. 6d. 
Schaff, P.: The Person of Christ. 12th ed. New York: Scribner, 1882, 

$1.00. 
Seeley, J. P. : Ecce Homo. 11th ed. London: Macmillan, 1873, 12mo, 6s. 
Ullmann : Eng. Trans. The Sinlessness of Jesus. Edinburgh: T. & T. 

Clark, 1870, cr. 8vo, 6s. ($2.25). 
. Also the chapter in H. Bushnell's Nature and the Supernatural (n. e., 

1876), separately published under its title, The Character of Jesus forbid- 

574 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 39 

ding his Classification with Men. New ed. New York: Scribner, 1867, 
16nio, 60 cts. 
History of the Apostolic Age. (Cf. History of JV. T. Times.) 

Ewald (see § History of Israel). 

Fisher, G. P.: The Beginnings of Christianity. New York: Scribner, 1877, 
8vo, $2.50. 

Lechler, G. V.: Eng. Trans. Apostolic and Post- Apostolic Times. Edin- 
burgh: T. & T. Clark, 1886, 3 vols., 8vo, 16s. 

Lightpoot, J. B. : Dissertations on the Apostolic Age. London and New 
York: Macmillan, 1892, 8vo, $3.50. 

Neander, A.: Eng. Trans. First Planting of Christianity. (In Bonn's 
Library, 2 vols., 12mo, $2.00.) 

Ramsay, W. M. : The Church in the Roman Empire before A.D. 170. Lon- 
don : Hodder & Stoughton ; New York : Putnam, 1893, pp. 494, 8vo, 
12s., $3.00. 

Renan, E. : Eng. Trans. The Apostles. London: Trubner, 1889, p. 8vo, Is. 

Schapf, P. : History of the Apostolic Church. New York : Scribner, 1853. 
Substantially reproduced in the first vol. of his Church History, 5th rev. 
ed. ; same, 1893, 8vo, $4.00. 

Thatcher, O. J. : A Sketch of the History of the Apostolic Church. Bos- 
ton : Houghton, 1893, 16mo, $1.25. 

Weizsacker, C. : Das apostolische Zeitalter der christlichen Kirche. 2d ed. 
Freiburg im Br. , 1889, 8vo, 16 marks. 
On Paul. 

Baur: Eng. trans. London: Williams & Norgate, 1873-75, 2 vols., 21s. 

Conybeare and Howson : New ed. London: Longmans, 1888, p. 8vo, 6s. 

Everett, C. C. : The Gospel of Paul. Boston: Houghton, 1893, pp. xiii, 
307, 8vo, $1.50. 
Unitarian. 

Farrar: New ed. London: Cassell, 1884, 8vo, 6s. 

Lewin, T.: 3d rev. ed. London: Bell, 1875, 2 vols., 4to, 42s. 

Stevens, G. B. : The Pauline Theology. New York: Scribner, 1892, pp. 
xi, 383, p. 8vo, $2.00. 

SPECIAL TOPICS. 

History op Persecutions. 
Aube, B.: Histoire des Persecutions [to close of 3d century]. Paris: Didier 

et Cie., 1878-85, 3 vols., 12mo, 12 fr. 
Mason, A. J.: The Persecution of Diocletian. London : Bell & Sons, 1876, 

8vo, 10s. Qd. 
Uhlhorn, G. : Eng. trans. The Conflict of Christianity with Heatlienism. 
New York: Scribner, 1879, 8vo, $2.50. 
History op Religious Liberty. 
Schafp, P. . Progress of Religious Freedom as shown in the History of Tol- 
eration Acts. New York: Scribner, 1889, 8vo, $1.50. 
History op the Organization op the Early Church. 
Hatch, E.: The Organization of the Early Christian Churches. London: 
Rivington, 1881 ; 2d ed., 1888, 8vo, 5s. 

575 



40 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

Histoky of Councils. 
Hefele, C. J. : ConciUengescMchle [to Council of Trent]. Freiburg im Br. : 
Herder, 2d ed. rev., 1873-90, 10 vols., 8vo. Eng. trans, [to 451]. Edin- 
burgh : T. & T. Clark, 1871-82, 3 vols., 8vo, 36s. 
History of Christian Life. 
Brace, C. L.: Oesta Ghristi, or a History of Humane Progress under Chris- 
tianity. New York: Armstrong, 1882 ; 5th ed., 1890, 8vo, $2.50. 
Uhlhorn, G-.: Die christliche Liebesthdtigkeit in der alien Kir die ; (do.) im 
Mittelalter ; (do.) seit der Reformation. Stuttgart: Gundert, 1881-90, 3 
vols., 8vo, 20 marks. 
History of Doctrines and Dogmas. 

Hagenbach, K. R. : Eng. trans. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1880-81, 3 

vols., 8vo, ea. 10s. Qd. (New York : Scribner, $9.00). 
Harnack, A. : Eng. trans, of The Outline by E. K. Mitchell. New York : 

Funk & Wagnalls, 1893, pp. xii. 567, 8vo, $2.50. 
Neander, A.: In Bohn's Library, 2 vols., 8vo, $2.00. 
Shedd, W. G. T.: New York : Scribner, 1865, 8th ed., 1884, 2 vols., 8vo, 

$5.00. 
Sheldon, H. C: New York : Harper, 1886, 2 vols., 8vo, $3.50. 
Patristic Manuals. 
Alzog, J. : Grundriss der Patristik oder die altchrisiliche Literaturge- 
schichte. Freiburg im Br. : Herder, 1866 ; 4th ed. , 1888, 8vo, 8 marks. 
The best Roman Catholic manual. 
Nirschl, J. : Lehrbuch der Patrologie und Patristic. Mainz : Kirch- 
heim, 1881-85, 3 vols., 8vo, 20.40 marks. 
By a Eoman Catholic scholar. 

Patristic Literature. 

Ceillier, R. : Histoire generate des Auteurs sacr'es et ecclesiastiques. Paris, 
1729-63, 23 vols. New ed. Paris : Vives, 1858-63 ; Index, 2 vols., 8vo, 
in all 16 vols., 170 fr. 

One of the great Benedictine works; begins with the Old Testament and analyzes 
all the biblical writings and then the Christian writings down to and including 
Pope Innocent ILL (13th century). 

Cruttwell, C. T. : A Literary History of Early Christianity, including 

the Fathers and the Chief Heretical Writers of the Ante-Nicene Period. 

London : Griffin. New York : Scribner, 1893, 2 vols. , 8vo, pp. 692, 

21s., $6.00. 
Donaldson, J. : Critical History of Christian Literature and Doctrine. 

London : Macmillan, 1864-66, 3 vols., 8vo, 31s. Qd. 

Out of print, except Vol. I. The Apostolic Fathers, 2d ed., 1874, 7s. 6d„ $2.00. 

Harnack, A. : Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur bis Eusebius, 1. Theil, 
Die TJeberlieferung und der Bestand. Leipzig : Hinrichs, 1893, pp lxi, 
1020, 8vo, 35 marks. 
Patristic Biographies. 
Farrar, F. W. : Lives of the Fathers. London and Edinburgh : Black. 
New York : Macmillan, 1889, 2 vols., 8vo, 24s., $5.00. 
Covers the first four Christian centuries ; highly commended. 

Fathers, The, far English Readers. London : S. P. C. K., 1878-88, 11 vols., 
ea. 2s. 

Scholarly brief biographies and analyses of works. 

576 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 41 

Schaff, P. : St. Chrysostom and St. Augustin. New York : Whittaker, 

1891, pp. viii, 158, 12mo, 75 cts. 
Smith, W., and Wace, H. : A Dictionary of Christian Biography , Litera- 
ture, Sects, and Doctrines. London: Murray, 1877-87, 4 vols., 8vo, 166s. 
(Boston : Little, Brown & Co., $24.00). 

Covers only first eight Christian centuries, but does so in the most scholarly 
and satisfactory manner. Should be one of the first purchases of the theological 
student. 

Christian Archaeology. 

Bennett, C. W. : Christian Archosology. New York : Phillips & Hunt, 
1888, 8vo, $3.50. 

A scholarly work by an enthusiastic student. 

Bingham, J. : The Antiquities of the Christian Church. London : 1708- 
22, 10 vols., modern ed., e. g. Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1855, 10 vols., 
8vo, £Z 3s. (New York : Macmillan, $16.00). 
Smith, W., and Cheetham, S. : A Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, 
London: Murray, 1875-80, 2 vols.. 8vo, £3 13s. Qd. (Boston: Little, 
Brown & Co., $15.00). 

Covers only first eight Christian centuries, but does so equally well with its com- 
panion the Dictionary of Biography. 

The Reformation. 
Beard, C. : The Reformation of the \§th Century in its Relation to Modern 
Thought and Knowledge. London : Williams & Norgate, 1883 ; 2d ed., 
1885, 8vo, 4s. 6a. 
Bezold, Fr. : Geschichte der deutschen Reformation. Berlin : Grote, 
1890, 8vo, 22.50 marks. 

Illustrated ; one of the Oncken series. 

Fisher, G. P. : The Reformation. New York : Scribner, 1873, cr. 8vo, 
$2.50. 

Comprehensive and eminently readable. 
Hagenbach, K. R. : Eng. trans. History of the Reformation in Germany 
and Switzerland. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1878-79, 2 vols., 21s. 6d. 9 
$6.00. 

5th ed. of orig., by F. Nippold. Leipzig : Hirzel, 1887, 8vo, 7 marks. 
Hardwick, C. : ed. by W. Stubbs. The Reformation. London : Mac- 
millan, 1877, 8vo, 10s. Qd. 
Hausser, L. : Eng. abridged trans. The Period of the Reformation, 1517- 
1648. New York: n. e., Am. Tract Soc, 1891, $2.00. 

Orig. ed. by Oncken. Berlin : Weidemann, 18S8, 8vo, 3 thaler 22>£ gr. 

Janssen, J. (R. C. ) : Geschichte des deutschen Volkes seit dem Ausgang des 
Mittelalters. Freiburg im Br. : Herder, 1816-88, 8 vols., 8vo ; 12th ed., 
1888, ea. about 6 marks. 

Ranke, L. : Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation. Leipzig : 
Duncker, 1834-36, 3 vols. ; 6th ed, 1882, 36 marks. 

Same : Die romischen Pdpste, ihre Kirche und ihr Staat im sechzehnten und 
sieozehnten Jahrhundert. Same, 1834-39, 3 vols. , 8vo ; 5th ed. , 1867, 8 
thaler. Excellent Eng. trans, by Sarah Austin: History of the Popes of 
Rome during the l§th and 17th Centuries. 4th ed. London : Murray, 
1867, 3 vols., 8vo, 30s. 

577 



42 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

Biographies of the Reformers. 

Collections. 

Leben und ausgewdhlte Schriften der Vdter und Begrunder der reformirten 

Kirche. Elberfeld: Friderichs, 1857-62, 10 vols., 8vo, 15 thaler. 

By different writers, authoritative biographies of Zwingli, Oecolampadius, My- 
conius, Capito, Butzer, Calvin (by Stahelin), Bullinger, Beza, Peter Martyr, Ver- 
migli, Olevianus, Ursinus, Lasco, Jud, Lambert, Farel, Viret, Vadian, Haller, 
Blaurer, and Knox. 

Leben und ausgewahlte Schriften der Vdter und Begrunder der lutherischen 

Kirche. Elberfeld: Friderichs, 1861-75, 8 vols., 8vo, 41 marks. 

By different writers ; authoritative biographies of Luther (by Kostlin), Melanch- 
thon, Bugenhagen, Osiander, Brenz, "Rhegius, Jonas, Cruciger, Speratus, Speng- 
ler, von Amsdorf, Eber, Chemnitz, and Chrytraus. 

Single Biographies. 
Luther. By J. Kostlin— Elberfeld : Friderichs, 1875, 2 vols., 8vo; 3d ed., 
1883, 18 marks. Abridged ed. Luthers Leben (illustrated). Leipzig: 
Fries, 1882 ; 3d ed. , 1883, 8vo, 8 marks. Eng. trans. London : Long- 
man. New York : Scribner, 1883, 8vo, 16s., $2.50. (Of. his Theology, 
also by Kostlin — Stuttgart : Steinkopf, 2d ed., 1883, 2 vols., 9 marks.) 
The authoritative life. 

Zwingli. By J. C. Morikofer— Leipzig : Hirzel, 1867-69, 2 vols., 8vo, 2 

thaler 15 gr. (Cf. Zwingli's Theology, by A. Baur — Halle : Niemeyer, 

1885-89, 2 vols., 8vo, 30 marks.) 
Calvin. By P. Henry— Hamburg : Perthes, 1835-44, 3 vols., 10 thaler 15 

gr. Abridged Eng. trans. London : Whittaker, 1849, 2 vols., 8vo, 24s. 

ByE. Stahelin— Elberfeld : Friderichs, 1860-62, 2 vols., 8vo, 3 thaler. 

By F. W. Kampschulte — 1st vol. Leipzig : Duncker, 1869, 8vo, 2 thaler 

24 gr. (by a liberal Roman Catholic, unfortunately unfinished). 
Knox. By Thomas McCrie — London : Cadell, 1839. New ed. , Nelsons, 

1889, p. 8vo, 2s. ; and by W. M. Taylor— New York: Armstrong, 1884, 

12mo, $1.25. 

The Papal Counter-Reformation. 
Creighton, M. : The Papacy during the Period of the Reformation. Lon- 
don and New York : Longman, 1882-87, 4 vols., 8vo, 56s., $18.50. 
Covers period from 1378 to 1518. 

Maurenbrecher, W. : Geschichte der hatholischen Reformation. Nord- 

lingen : Beck, Vol. I., 1880, 8vo, 8 marks. 
Pastor, L. : Eng. trans. History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle 
Ages. London : J. Hodges, 1892, 2 vols. , 8vo, 24s. net. 

Down to the death of Sixtus IV. (1484). Ger. orig.— Freiburg im Br.: Herder, 1886- 
89, 2 vols., 8vo, ea. 10 marks ; 2d ed., Vol. I., 1891. 

Philippson, M. : La contre-revolution religieuse au xm. siecle. Brussels : 
C. Muquardt, 1884, 8vo, 10 fr. 

Ward, A. W.: Tlie Counter-Reformation. London and New York : Long- 
man, 1889, 12mo, 2s. 6d., $1.00. 

Church History of the United States. 
Dorchester, D.: Christianity in the United States from the First Settlement 
down to the Present Time. New York : Phillips & Hunt, 1888, 8vo, $4.50. 
Nippold, F. : Amerikanische Kirchengeschichte seit der Unabhdngigkeitser- 

578 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 43 

Tdarung der Vereinigten Staaten. Berlin : Wiegandt u. Schotte, 1892, 
pp. xi, 272, 8vo, 6.40 marks. 

Vol. IV. of his Handbuch der neuesten Kirchengeschichte. 

(dP The Christian Literature Company of New York announce that, begin- 
ning toward the close of 1893, they will issue a series of twelve or thirteen 
volumes, edited by a committee of the American Society of Church His- 
tory, and covering all the denominations in the United States. Separate vol- 
umes will be given to the Baptists (Prof. A. H. Newman); Congregationalists 
(Prof. W. Walker) ; Lutherans (Prof. H. E. Jacobs) ; Methodists (Rev. Dr. 
J. M. Buckley) ; Presbyterians (Prof. R. E. Thompson) ; Protestant Episcopal 
(Rev. Dr. C. C. Tiffany) ; and Roman Catholics (Prof. T. O'Gorman). The 
series will open with The Religious Census of 1890, prepared by its superin- 
tendent, H. K. Carroll, LL.D. Advance subscribers receive the set at 
$2.00 a volume. 

ECCLESIASTICAL MONOGRAPHY. 

The great number of these prevents the mention of more than a very few accessible to 
English readers. 

BIOGRAPHICAL. 

Anselm. By F. R. Hasse. Abridged Eng. trans. London : Rivington, 
1850, p. 8vo, 6s. (Orig. Leipzig: Engelmann, 1843-52, 2 vols., 8vo, 4 
thaler 15 gr.) By Martin Rule. London: Kegan Paul, 1883, 2 vols., 
8vo, 32s. 

Bernard. By A. Neander. Eng. trans. London : Rivington, 1843, 8vo, 
7s. 6d. By R. S. Storrs. New York : Scribner, 1892, pp. viii, 598, 
8vo, $2.50. 

Crankier. By J. Strype. Mod. ed. Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1840, 2 
vols., 8vo, lis. 

Julian, The Emperor. By A. Neander. Eng. trans. London : Parker, 
1850, 12mo, 3s. 6d. 

Wiclip. By G. V. Lechler. Eng. trans. London: 1878. 2d ed. Re- 
ligious Tract Soc. , 1884, 8vo, 8s. 
DOCTRINAL AND DOGMATIC-HISTORICAL. 

Alger, W. R. : Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life. Phila- 
delphia : G. W. Childs, 1863. 12th ed.— Boston : Roberts, 1885, 8vo, 

$3.50. 

With the remarkable bibliography on the subject by Ezra Abbot. 

Batjr, F. C: Die Lehre von der Dreieinigkeit und Menschwerdung Gottes 
in Hirer geschichtlichen Entwicklung. Tubingen : Osiander, 1841-43, 3 
vols., 8vo, 13 Thaler. 

Dorner, Isaac A. : Eng. trans. History of the Development of the Doc- 
trine of the Person of Christ. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1868-72, 5 
vols., 8vo, £2 12s. Qd. 

GENERAL WORKS IN CHURCH HISTORY. 
Batjr, F. C: Leipzig: Fues, 1853-62, 5 vols., 8vo, 13 thaler 4 gr. 
(Vols. I. and II., 3d ed., 1863, 4 thaler 6 gr.; Vol. in., 2d ed., 1869, 2 
thaler 28 gr.; Vol. V., 2d ed., 1877, 10 marks.) Eng. trans. Tlie 
Church History of the First Three Centuries. London : Williams & Nor- 
gate, 1878-79, 2 vols., 8vo, 21s. Qd. 
The original goes down to 1848. 

579 



44 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

Gieselek, J. K. L.: Bonn: Marcus, 1835-55, 6 vols., 8vo, 23 thaler 15 
gr. Eng. trans, revised by H. B. Smith. New York : Harpers, 1855-79, 
5 vols., 8vo, $10.50. 

Hagenbach, K. R. : Leipzig: Hirzel, 1869-72, 6 vols., 8vo, 12 marks; 
n. e., by F. Nippold, Vols. I.-III., 1885-87, 3 vols., 8vo, ea. 7 marks. 
Partial Eng. trans. History of the Reformation in Germany and Switzer- 
land, by Miss Eveline Moore. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1878-79, 2 
vols., 8vo, 21s., $6.00. History of the Church in the \§th and V^th Cen- 
turies, by Bp. J. P. Hurst. New York : Scribner, 1869, 2 vols., 8vo, 
$6.00. 

Hase, K. A. von : Kirchengeschichte auf der Grundlage akademischer 
Vorlesungen. Leipzig: Breitkopf, 8vo. 1. Theil — Alte Kirchenge- 
schichte, 1885 ; 2d ed., 1890, 10 marks. 2. Theil — Mittlere Kirchenge- 
schichte, 1890, 12 marks. 3. Theil — Neuere Kirchengeschichte, ed. by 
G. Kriiger, 1892, 10 marks. 

Neander, A.: Hamburg u. Gotha: F. A. Perthes, 1825-52, 6 vols.; 4th 
ed., 1863-65, 9 vols., ea. 15 gr. Eng. trans, by Joseph Torrey. Boston: 
Crocker & Brewster, 1854, 5 vols., 8vo ; 12th ed. with index vol. 
Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 6 vols., 8vo, $20.00. 

Excellent trans. ; the index vol. should always be purchased. 

Robertson, J. C: London: Murray, 1858-73, 4 vols., 8vo ; n. e., 1873- 
75, 8 vols., 8vo, ea. 6s. 

Extends to the Reformation. 

Schafp, Philip : History of the Christian Church. New York : Scrib- 
ner, 1858-67, 3 vols, (from the Birth of Christ to Gregory the Great, 1- 
600) ; 5th ed. , thoroughly revised and enlarged. Vol. I. , Apostolic Chris- 
tianity, a.d. 1-100, 1893 ; Vol. II., Ante-Nicene Christianity, a.d. 100- 
325, 1884; Vol. III., Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity, a"d. 311-600, 
1884; Vol. IV, Medieval Christianity, a.d. 590-1073, 1885; Vol. V., 
Mediaeval Christianity, a.d. 1073-1517 (in preparation) ; Vol. VI., Mod- 
ern Christianity; The German Reformation, 1517-1530, 1888; Vol. 
VII. , Modern Christianity: The Swiss Reformation, 1892, 8vo, ea. $4.00. 

A standard work, which every minister should own and study ; written in an at- 
tractive style ; gives unsurpassed bibliographical information on all points. 

Manuals. 

Fisher, G. P.: History of the Christian Church. New York : Scribner, 

1887, 8vo, $3.50. 
Hase, K. A. von : Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte. Leipzig : Weidmann, 

1834. 11th ed.— Leipzig : Breitkopf, 1886, 8vo, 10 marks. 

Eng. trans, pub. 1855 ; there should be another, as Hase is a master in painting 
characters. 

Hurst, J. P. : Short History of the Christian Church. New York : Har- 
pers, 1893, pp. xxxv, 672, 8vo, $3.00. 
Kurtz, J. H. : Eng. trans. Church History. London : Hodder. New 
York : Funk & Wagnalls, 1888-90, 3 vols., 8vo, ea. 7s. 6d., $2.00. 

From the 10th ed. 1st ed.— Mitau : Neumann, 1849. 12th ed.— Leipzig : Neu- 
mann, 1893, 16.60 marks. Trans, in need of revision. 

Moller, W. : History of the Christian Church. Trans, from the German 
by A. Rutherfurd. London : Sonnenschein. New York : Macmillan, 
1892-93, 2 vols., 8vo, 15«., $3.75. 

580 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 45 

Mullek, K. : Kirchengeschichte. Freiburg im Br. : Mohr, 1892-93, 
2 vols., 8vo, ea. 9.50 marks. 

Chronological Tables. 

Smith, H. B. : History of the Church of Christ in Chronological Tables. 
New York : Scribner, 1859 ; rev. eds., 1869, 1875, 1877, fol., $5.00. 

Weingarten, H. : Zeittafeln und Ueberblicke zur Kirchengeschichte. Ber- 
lin : Schweigger, 1870 ; 4th ed. by S. M. Deutsch — Leipzig : Hartung, 
1891, 8vo, 4.80 marks. 



581 



BOOK IV.— SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

APOLOGETIC. 

* Bruce, A. B. : Apologetic ; or Christianity defensively Stated. Edin- 
burgh : T. & T. Clark. New York : Scribner, 1892, 8vo, 10s. 6&, $2.50. 

Butler, J. : The Analogy of Religion, natural and revealed, to the Con- 
stitution and Course of Nature. London : 1736. Many eds. , e. g. by Em- 
ory and Crooks. New York : Harper, 1852, 12mo, $1.00 (still in print). 

Farrar, A. S. : Critical History of Free Tlwught. London : Murray. 
New York : Appleton, 1862, 8vo, 16s., $2.00. 

Stearns, L. F. : The Evidence of Christian Experience. New York : 
Scribner, 1890, 12mo, $2.00. 

Fresh, original ; marks an advance. 

HEP 33 See also, for additional literature, "Natural Theology " and " Chris- 
tian Theology and Philosophy." 

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 
Old Testament Theology. 

Davidson, A. B. (Announced ; in Salmonds and Briggs's Library.) 
Oehler, C F. : Eng. trans., ed. by G-. E. Day. New York : Funk & 

Wagnalls, 1883, 8vo, $3.00. 
Piepenbring, Ch. Eng. trans. Theology of the Old Testament. New 

York : Crowell, 1893, pp. xi, 361, 12mo, $1.75. 
Schultz, H. : Eng. trans., by J. A. Paterson. Edinburgh : T. & T. 

Clark. New York : Scribner, 1892-3, 2 vols., pp. x, 435, vi, 470, 8vo, 

18s., $6.00. 
Messianic Prophecy. 

Briggs, C. A. : New York : Scribner, 1886, 8vo, $2.50. 

Delitzsch, F. : Eng. trans, by S. I. Curtiss. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 

1891, p. 8vo, 5s. 
Jgp" See also section " Jewish Religion." 
New Testament Theology. 
Bernard, T. D. : Progress of Doctrine in the N. T. 4th ed. London : 

Macmillan, 1878, 8vo, 5s. 
Beyschlag, W. : Halle : Strien, 1891, 8vo, 8 marks. 
van Oosterzee, J. J. : Eng. trans. New York : Dodd, Mead & Co., 

1877, 12mo, $1.50. 
Reuss, E. : Eng. trans. History of the Christian Theology of the Apostolic 

Age. London : Hodder & Stoughton, 1872-74, 2 vols., 8vo, 24s. 
Schmid, C. F. : Eng. trans. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1871, 8vo, 

10s. Qd. New York : Scribner, $3.00. 

From the 4th ed. Gotha : Schloessmann, 1868, 8vo, 2 thaler 24 gr. 6th ed. — 
Gotha : Perthes (in Bibliothek theologischer Klassiker), 1892-93, 3 parts, 8vo, ea. 
2.40 marks. 

582 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 47 

Weiss, B. : Eng. trans. Biblical Theology of the New Testament. Edin- 
burgh : T. & T. Clark. New York: Scribner, ' 1883, 2 vols., 8vo, 21s., 
$0.00. 

Wendt, H. H. : Eng. trans. The Teaching of Jesus. Edinburgh : T. & 
T. Clark. New York : Scribner, 1892, 2 vols., 8vo, 21s. Qd., $5.00. 

DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. 

Roman Catholic. 
Bering-ton, J., and Kirk, J.: The Faith of Catholics. 3d ed., by J. 

Waterworth. London : Dolman, 1846, 3 vols., 8vo, n. e. 1890, 31s. 6d. 
Gibbons, J. : The Faith of our Fathers. Baltimore : Murphy, 1876 ; 

36th rev. ed., 1890, 18mo, $1.00. 
Lutheran. 
Martensen, H. : Eng. trans. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. New York : 

Scribner, 1866, 8vo, 10s. Qd. t $3.00 
Schmid, H. : Eng. trans., fr. 5th Ger. ed., by Hay and Jacobs. Phila- 
delphia : Lutheran Pub. Soc. , 1876, 8vo, $4.00. 
Sprecher, S. : Philadelphia : Lutheran Pub. Soc, 1879, 8vo, $2.75. 
Reformed and Calvinistic. 

Calvin, J. : Eng. trans. Institutes of the Christian Eeligion. Philadel- 
phia : Presbyterian Board, 2 vols., 8vo, $2.50. 
Gerhart, E. V. : New York : Armstrong, 1891 sqq. (to be completed in 

2 vols., 8vo); Vol I., $3.00. 
HjODGE, A. A. : Outlines of Theology. Philadelphia : Pres. Bd. , 1878, 

$3.00. 
Hodge, C. : New York : Scribner, 1872, 3 vols., 8vo, with index vol. 

(1873), set $12.00. 
van Oosterzee : Eng. trans. New York : Scribner, 1874, 2 vols., $5.00. 
Shedd, W. G. T. : New York : Scribner, 1889, 2 vols., 8vo, $7.00. 
Smith, H. B. : New York : Armstrong, 1884 ; 4th ed., 1890, 8vo, $2.00. 
Stearns, L. F. : New York : Scribner, 1893, pp. xxiv, 568, 8vo, $2.50. 
Strong, A. H. : New York : Armstrong, 1889 ; 3d ed., 1892, 8vo, $5.00. 
Anglican. 

Browne, E. H.: An Exposition of the XXXIX Articles. Ed. Bp. Williams. 

New York : Dutton, 1870, 8vo, $4.00. 
Buel, S. : Systematic Theology. New York : Whittaker, 1890, 2 vols. , 8vo, 

$6.00. 
Bull, G. : Eng. trans. A Defence of the Nicene Creed. Oxford: Parker, 

1851-55, 2 vols., 8vo, 10s. 
Hooker, R. : Ecclesiastical Polity . Ed. J. Keble. Oxford, 1836, 4 vols., 

8vo ; 3d ed., 1845, 3 vols., 8vo, 31s. 6d. 
Pearson, J. : An Exposition of the Creed. In Bohn's Library. London : 

Bell. New York: Macmillan, $1.50. 
Arminian and Methodist. 

Miley, J.: New York: Methodist Book Concern, 1892 sqq., 8vo, Vol. I., 

$3.00. 
Pope, W. B.: London: Wesleyan Conference Office, 1875-76, 3 vols., 8vo ; 

rev. ed., 1879-81, ea. 10s. Qd. 

583 



48 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

Raymond, M. : Cincinnati: Metli. Bk. Concern, 1877-79, 3 vols., 8vo, ea. 

$3.00. 
Watson, R.: New York: Metli. Bk. Concern, 2 vols., 8vo, $3.50. 
Wesley, J.: Sermons. New York: Meth. Bk. Concern, 2. vols., 8vo, 

$4.50. 
Unitarian. 
Channing, W. E. : Works. Boston: American Unitarian Association, 1875, 

lvol., 8vo, $1.00. 
Clarke, J. F. : Steps of Belief . Boston : Am. Unit. Assoc, 1870 ; 5th ed., 

1874, 16mo, $1.00. 
Martineau, J. : A Study of Religion : its Sources and Contents. London 

and New York: Macmillan, 1888, 2 vols., 12mo, $4.50. 
Evangelical Union. 

Dorner, Isaac A. : Eng. trans, by A. Cave and J. S. Banks. Edinburgh : 

T. & T. Clark. New York : Scribner, 1880-82, 4 vols., 8vo, 42s., $12.00. 
MtiLLER, J. : The Christian Doctrine of Sin. Eng. trans, by W. Urwick. 

Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. New York : Scribner, 1868, 2 vols., 21*., 

$6.00. 

RlTSCHLIANISM. 

Ritschl, A. : Die christliche Lehre von der Rechtfertigung und Versbhnung. 
2d ed. Bonn : Marcus, 1884, 3 vols., 8vo, 26 marks. Eng. trans. The 
Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation. Edinburgh : T. 
' & T. Clark, 1872, 8vo, 12s. 

SYMBOLIC, POLEMIC, AND LRENIC. 

Collected Creeds. 
Schafp, P. : The Creeds of Christendom. New York : Harper, 1877, 3 
vols., 8vo ; 5th ed., 1890, $15.00. 
Symbolical Literature. 
Hase, K. : Handbuch der protestantischen Polemik gegen die rbmisch-katho* 
lische Kirche. Leipzig : Breitkopf, 1862; 5th ed., 1890, 8vo, 10 marks. 
A model of courteous but incisive polemic. 
Kattenbusch, F. : Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Confessionskunde. Frei- 
burg im Br.: Mohr, Vol. I., 1892, 8vo, 12 marks. 
Mohler, J. A.: Eng. trans. Symbolism. London : Dolman, 1847, 2 vols., 
8vo, 14s. 

The standard on the Koman Catholic side. 

Winer, G. B.: Eng. trans, by W. B. Pope. A Comparative View of the 
Doctrines and Confessions of the Various Communities of Christendom. 
Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. New York : Scribner, 1873, 8vo, 10s. 6d., 
$3.00. 

ETHIC. 

Bowne, B. P. : The Principles of Ethics. New York: Harper, 1892, pp. 
xv, 309, 8vo, $1.75. 

Calderwood, H.: Handbook of Moral Philosophy. London: Macmillan, 
1872 ; 14th ed., 1888, p. 8vo, 6s. 

Dorner, Isaac A. : Eng. trans. System of Christian Ethics. Edin- 
burgh : T. & T. Clark, 1887, 8vo, lis. 

584 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 49 

Janet, P. : Eng. trans. The Theory of Morals. Edinburgh : T. & T. 

Clark, 1884, Svo, 10s. Qd. 
Martexsen, H. : Eng. trans. Christian Ethics. Edinburgh : T. & T. 

Clark, 1873-82, 3 vols., 8vo, ea. 10s. 6d. 
Martlneau, J. : Types of Ethical Theory. London and New York: Mac- 

millan, 1885 ; 3d ed., 1890, Svo, 10s., $2.60. 
Sedgwick, H. : The Methods of Ethics. London and New York : Macmil- 

lan, 1874 ; 4th ed., 1890, cr. Svo, 14s., $3.50. 
Smyth, Newman : Christian Ethics. New York : Scribner, 1892, pp. 

ix, 498, Svo, $2.50. 
Whewell, Wm. : The Elements of Morality, including Polity. London : 

Parker, 1845; 4th ed., London : Bell, 1864, 8vo, 15s. 
Wuttke, A.: Christian Ethics. Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1873, 2 vols., 

12mo, $3.50. 

SOCIOLOGY. 

Behrends, A. J. F. : Socialism and Christianity. New York : Baker & 

Taylor, 1886, 12mo, $1.00. 
Co-operation in Christian Work. New York : Baker & Taylor, 1888, 16mo, 

60 cts. 
Gladden, W. : Working People and their Employers. (Boston, 1876.) 2d 

ed. New York : Funk & Wagnalls, 1885, 12mo, $1.00. 
Same : Applied Christianity : Moral Aspects of Social Questions. Bos- 
ton and New York : Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1886, 16mo, $1.25. 
Same : Parish Problems : Hints and Helps for the People of the Churches. 

New York : Century Co., 1887, Svo, $2.00. 
Same : Tools and the Man : Property and Industry under the Christian 

Laic. Boston : Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1893, pp. vii, 308, 12mo, $1.25. 
Loomis, S. L. : Modem Cities and their Religious Problems. New York : 

Baker & Taylor, 1887, 12mo, $1.00. 
Magee, W. C. : The Gospel and the Age : Sermons on Special Occasions. 

London : Isbister, 1884 ; 2d ed., 1888, 8vo, 7s. 6d 
Mulford, E. : The Nation. New York : Hurd & Houghton, 1872 ; 9th 

ed., 1884, 8vo, $2.50. 
Pierson, A. T. : Evangelistic Work j,n Principle and Practice. New 

York : Baker & Taylor" 1887, 16mo, $1.25. 
Spencer, H. : Descriptive Sociology. London : Williams & Norgate. 

New York : Appleton, 1873 sqq., 8 parts, 155s., $35.00. 
Same : Principles of Sociology. Same, 1877-82, 2 vols., 12mo, 21s., $4.00. 
Strong, J.: The New Era; or The Coming Kingdom. New York: 

Baker & Taylor Co., 1893, pp. xviii, 374, 12mo, 75 cts. 
Stubbs, C. W. : Christ and Economics in the Light of the Sermon on the 

Mount. London : Isbister, 1893, pp. 290, p. Svo, 3s. Gd. 
Stuckenberg, J. H. W. : Christian Sociology. New York : Funk & 

Wagnalls, 1880, 12mo, $1.50. 
Thompson, R. E. : The Divine Order of Human Society. Philadelphia : 

J. D. Wattles, 1891, 12mo, pp. vi, 274, $1.00. 



585 



BOOK V.— PEACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

ECCLESIOLOGY. 
Bruce, A. B.: The Kingdom of God; or, Christ's Teachings according to 
the Synoptical Gospels. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark ; New York : Scrib- 
ner, 1889, 8vo, 7s. Qd., $2,00. 
M'Elhinney, J. J.: The Doctrine of the Church : an Historical Monograph ; 
with a Full Bibliography of the Subject. Philadelphia : Claxton, 1871 , 
8vo, $3.00. 

A scholarly book. 

Morris, E. D. : Ecclesiology : a Treatise on the Church and Kingdom of 
God on Earth. New York : Scribner, 1885, 12mo, $1.75. 

CHURCH LAW. 
Collections. 

Blunt, J. H.: The Book of Church Law. London : Rivington, 1872 ; n. e. 
by Sir W. G. F. Phillimore, 1888, 8vo, 7s. 

Bright, W.: The Canons of the First Four General Councils of Nice, 
Constantinople, Ephesus, and Chalcedon : With Notes. Oxford : Claren- 
don Press, 1882 ; 2d ed., 1892, pp. 292, cr. 8vo, 7s. Qd. 

Corpus Juris Canonici, post A. L. Richter, rec. Mm.. Friedberg. 
Leipzig : Tauchnitz, 1882, 2 vols., 4to, 60 marks. 

Fulton, J.: Index Canonum. New York : Pott, 1872 ; 3d ed. — Whit- 
taker (pub.), 1892, pp. 478, p. 8vo, $2.00. 

Phillimore, Robert : The Principal EcclesiasticalJudgments delivered in 
the Court of Arches, 1867 to 1875. London : Rivington, 1876, 8vo, 12s. 

Same: Ecclesiastical Law of the Church of England. London: Sweet, 
1873-76, 2 vols., 8vo, 30s. 

CHURCH LAW. * 

Treatises. 
Alexander, W. A. : Presbyterian Digest. Richmond, Va. : Presbyterian 

Board, 1887, 8vo, $4 00. 

The Digest for the Southern Presbyterian Church. 
Andrews, J. W. : Church Law: Suggestions on the Law of the P. E. 

Church in the United States. New York: Whittaker, 1883, 12mo, 

$1.25. 
Frledberg, E. : Lehrbuch des Tcatholischen und evangelischen Kirchen- 

rechts. Leipzig : B. Tauchnitz, 1879 ; 3d ed., 1889, 8vo, 12 marks. 
Hinschius, P.: Das Kirchenrecht der Katholiken und Protestanten in 

Deutschland. Berlin : Guttentag, 1869-88, 4 vols., 8vo, 92 marks. 
Hodge, C. : Discussions in Church Polity. New York : Scribner's Sons, 

1878, 8vo, $3.50. 

Posthumous, ed. by W. Durant. 

586 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 51 

Hoffman, Murray : The Ritual Law of the Church, with its Application to 
Communion and Baptismal Offices. New York: Pott, 1872, 8vo, $4.00. 

Moore, W. E. : Presbyterian Digest. Philadelphia : Pres. Bd. , 1873 ; 
n. e., 1886, 8vo, $2.00. 

The Digest for the Northern Presbyterian Church. 

Richter, A. L. : Lehrbuch des katholischen und evangelischen Kirchen- 

rechts. Leipzig : B. Tauchnitz, 1842 ; 8th ed., 1886, 8vo, 16.20 marks. 
Schulte, J. F. v. (R. C.) : Die Geschichte der Quellen und Literatur des 

canonischen Rechts, von Gratian bis auf die Gegenwart. Stuttgart : 

Enke, 1877, 3 vols., 8vo, 66.20 marks. 
Same : Lehrbuch des katholischen und evangelischen Kirchenrechts. Gies- 

sen : Roth, 4th ed., 1886, 8vo, 12 marks. 
Strong, W. : Two Lectures upon the Relation of Civil Law to Church 

Polity, Discipline, and Property. New York : Dodd, Mead & Co., 1875, 

12mo, $1.00. 
Vering, F. H, (R. C.) : Lehrbuch des katholischen, orientalischen und 

protestantischen Kirchenrechtes, mit besonderer Rilcksicht auf Deulsch- 

land, Oesterreich und die Schweiz. Freiburg im Br. : Herder, 1875 ; 3d 

ed., 1893, pp. xvi, 1032, 8vo, 14 marks. 

CHURCH POLITY. 

Davidson, S. : The Ecclesiastical Polity of the _ZV. T. unfolded, and its 
Points of Coincidence or Disagreement with Prevailing Systems indicated. 
London : Jackson & W., 1848 ; 2d ed.— Bohn, 1854, 8vo, 5s. 

Dexter, H. M. : The Congregationalism of the Last 300 Years, as seen in 
its Literature. New York : Harpers, 1880, 8vo, $6.00. 

With a remarkable bibliography ; the greatest work of the great Congregational 
historian of America. 

Same : A Handbook of Congregationalism. Boston : Cong. Pub. Soc. , 

1880, 16mo, $1.00. 
Hatch, E. : The Organization of the Early Christian Churches. London: 
Rivington, 1881; 2d ed., 1888, 8vo, 5s. 

Ably advocates the Greek origin of the early Christian polity ; an important 
book. 

Same : The Groioth of Church Institutions. London: Hodder ; New York : 

Whittaker, 1887, p. 8vo, 5s., $1.50. 
Same : The Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages upon the Christian 

Church. London: Williams & Norgate, 8vo, 1890 ; 2ded., 1891, 10s. 

Qd., $3.75. 
Innes, A. Taylor : The Law of Creeds in Scotland. Edinburgh and 

London : Blackwood, 1867, 8vo, 15s. 
Jacob, G. A.: The Ecclesiastical Polity of the N. T. London: Daldy, Is- 

bister. 1872 ; 2d ed., 1878, 12mo, 10s. 6d. 

Kemarkably candid, considering its source in the Church of England ; advocates 
very liberal opinions. 

Ladd, G. T. : The Principles of Church Polity, illustrated by an Analysis 
of Modern Congregationalism, and applied to certain Important Practical 
Questions in the Government of Christian Churches. New York : Scrib- 
ner, 1882, 8vo, $2.50. 

McGill, A. T. : Church Government : a Treatise compiled from his Lee- 

587 



52 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

tures in Theological Seminaries. Philadelphia: Presb. Bd. Pub., 1889, 

12mo, $1.50. 
Perry, W. S. : The General Ecclesiastical Constitution of the American 

Church. New York : Whittaker, 1891, 12mo, $1.50. 
Reynolds, H. R.: (ed.) Ecclesia : Church Problems considered in a Series of 

Essays [by Congregationalists]. London: Hodder, 1870-71, 2 series, 8vo, 

7s. 6d., and 8s. 6d. 
Ross, A. H. : The Church Kingdom : Lectures on Congregationalism. Bos- 
ton and Chicago: Cong. S. S. and Pub. Soc, 1888, 8vo, $2.50. 
Stanley, A. P. : Christian Institutions : Essays on Ecclesiastical Subjects. 

London: Murray. New York: Scribner, 1881; 3d ed., 1892, cr. 8vo, 6s. 

(75 cts.). 

Brilliant essays on Baptism, the Eucharist, Absolution, Vestments, the Pope, 
Roman Catacombs, etc. 

CHURCH AND STATE. 
Innes, A. Taylor: Church and State : an Historical Handbook. Edinburgh. 
Schapf, P.: Church and State in the United States. New York: Putnam, 

1888, 8vo, $1.00. 

HISTORY OF THE PULPIT. 
Blaikie, W. G-. : The Preachers of Scotland, from the Sixth to the Nine- 
teenth Centuries. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. New York: Scribner, 

1889, 8vo, 7s. 6d., $3.00. 

Broadus, J. A. : Lectures on the History of Preaching. New York: Shel- 
don, 1876, 12mo, $1.50. 

Classic Preachers, The, of the English Church. London: Murray, 1877-78, 
2 series, p. 8vo, ea. 7s. 6d. 

With an introduction by John Edward Kempe. 

Sprague, W. B.: Annals of the American Pulpit. New York: Carter, 
1856-69, 10 vols., 8vo, ea. $4.00. 

Vols. I., II., Trinitarian Congregational; Vols, m., TV., Presbyterian; Vol. V, 
Episcopalian ; Vol. VI., Baptist ; "Vol. VH., Methodist ; Vol. VEIL, Unitarian ; Vol. 
IX., Lutheran, Reformed Dutch ; Vol. X., American Associate, Associate Reformed, 
Reformed Presbyterian. 

Taylor, W. M. : The Scottish Pulpit, from the Reformation to the Present 
Day. New York: Harper, 1887, 12mo, $1.50. 
The Yale Lectures for 1886. 

HOMILETIC. 
Bautain, L. E. M. : The Art of Extempore Speaking. London: Lock- 
wood, 1858 ; 6th ed., 1878. New York (ed. by a member of the New 
York bar): Scribner, 1874, 12mo, 3s. Qd., $1.50. 
The classic on the subject. From the French. 
Beecher, H. W. : Tale Lectures on Preaching. 3 vols, in one. New 
York : Fords, 1881, $2.00. 

Vol. I. The personal elements which bear an important relation to preaching. 
Vol. II. The social and religious machinery of the Church. 
Vol. m. Methods of using Christian doctrines. 
Characteristic and helpful. 

Behrends, A. J. F. : See Yale Lectures, 1890. 

Broadus, J. A. : The Preparation and Delivery of Sermons. Philadel- 
phia : Smith, English & Co., 1870 ; 5th ed., 1876, 12mo, $2.00. 

588 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 53 

Brooks, P.: See Yale Lectures, 1877. 

Burgess, H. : The Art of Preaching and the Composition of Sermons. 

Edinburgh : 1881, 8vo, 12*. 
Dale, R. W. : See Yale Lectures. 
Fisk, F. W.: Manual of Preaching. New York : Armstrong, 1884, 12mo, 

$1.50. 
Hervey, Gl. W. : A System of Christian Rhetoric. New York : Harper, 

1873, 8vo, $3.50. 
Hood, E. Paxton : Lamps, Pitchers, and Trumpets. London : Jackson, 

1867, 8vo, 10s. 6d. New York : Dodd, 1869, $1.75. 

Interesting lectures upon the famous preachers, with racy extracts and anecdotes. 
Hoppin, J. M.: Homiletics. New York : Dodd, 1882, 8vo, $3.50. 
Contains a history of preaching. Rather discursive, but good. 

Horton, R. F. : See Yale Lectures, 1893. 

Kidder, D. P. : A Treatise on Homiletics. New York : Methodist Book 

Concern, 1864, 12mo, $1.75. 
Mahaffy, J. P. : Tlie Decay of Modern Preaching. London and New 

York : Macmillan, 1882, 8vo, 90 cts. 
Parker, J. : Ad clerum — Advices to a Young Preacher. London : Hod- 

der, 1870, 8vo, 5s. 

Pertinent advice from a born preacher. 

Phelps, A. : The Theory of Preaching : Lectures on Homiletics. New York : 

Scribner, 1881, 8vo, $2.50. 
Pierson, A. T. : The Divine Art of Preaching. New York : Baker & 

Taylor Co., 1892, 16mo, pp. xiii, 156, 75c. 
Shedd, W. G. T. : Homiletics and Pastoral Theology. New York: Scribner, 

1867 ; 8th ed., 1884, 8vo, $2.50. 

Characterized by cool judgment and elevation of style and thought. 

Spurgeon, C. H. : Lectures to my Students. London : Passmore ; New 
York : Sheldon, 1875-77, 2 series in 1 vol., 8vo, 2s. 6d., $1.25. 

Same : Commenting and Commentaries. London : Passmore ; New York : 
Sheldon, 1876, 12mo, 2s. 6d, $1.25. 

Stalker, J. : See Yale Lectures, 1891. 

Storrs, R. S. : Conditions of Success in Preaching Without Notes. New 
York : Dodd, 1875, 12mo, $1.25. 

The author' 's success is not to be expected, but the hints are valuable. 

Taylor, W. M. : See Yale Lectures, 1876 and 1886. 

Vinet, A. : Eng. trans. Homiletics. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1853. 
Translated by T. H. Skinner. New York : Ivison, 1853, 12mo, $1.75. 
Probably the best treatise. 

Yale Lectures on the Lyman Beecher Foundation, Delivered at Yale College, 

New Haven, Conn. : 

1872-4. Henry Ward Beecher : Yale Lectures on Preaching. New York : Fords, 
1872-4, 3 vols. ; n. e., 3 vols, in 1 vol., 1881, $2.00. 

1875. John Hall : God's Word through Preaching. New York : Dodd, 1875, 12mo, 

$1.50. 

1876. William M. Taylor : The Ministry of the Word. New York : Randolph, 1876, 

12mo, $1.50. 

1877. Phillips Brooks : Lectures on Preaching. New York : Dutton, 1877, 12mo, 

$1.50. 

1878. Robert W. Dale : Nine Lectures on Preaching. London : Hodder, 1877, 5th 

ed., 1886, p. 8vo, 6s. 

589 



54 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

1879. Matthew Simpson : Lectures on Preaching. New York : Nelson & Phillips, 

1879, 12ino, $1.50. 

1880. Howard Crosby : The Christian Preacher. New York : Eandolph, 1880, 

12nio, $1.50. 

1881. Joseph T. Duryea (Appointed.) 

1882. E. G. Robinson : Lectures on Preaching. New York : Holt, 1883, 12mo, $1.25. 

1883. Nathaniel J. Burton (in posthumous vol. Yale Lectures on Preaching and 

other Writings. New York : C. L. Webster, 1888). 

1885. Henry M. Storrs : The American Preacher at the End of the Nineteenth and 

the Beginning of the Twentieth Century. (Unpublished.) 

1886. William M. Taylor : The Scottish Pulpit, from the Reformation to the Present 

Day. New York : Harper, 1887, 12mo, $1.50. 

1887. Washington Gladden. (Published in altered form under title, Tools and the 

Man. Boston : Houghton, 1893, 16mo, $1.25.) 

1888. H. Clay Trumbull : The Sunday-School, its Origin, Mission, Methods and 

Auxiliaries. Philadelphia: Wattles, 1888, 8vo, $1.50. 

1889. John A. Broadus. (Unpublished.) 

1890. A. J. F. Behrends : Philosophy of Preaching. New York : Scribner, 1890, 

12mo, $1.00. 

1891. James Stalker : The Preacher and his Models. New York : Armstrong, 1891, 

12mo, $1.50. 

1892. A. M. Fairbairn. (Unpublished.) 

1893. Robert F. Horton : Verbum Dei. New York : Macmillan, 1893, 12mo. $1.50. 

VATEOHET1C. 
Allen, A. H. : The Church Catechism : its History and Contents. London 

and New York : Longmans, 1892. Pp. 220, p. 8vo, 3s. 6d., $1.50. 
Denison, J. E.: Catechizing on the Catechism of the Church of England. 

London : Sonnenschein, 1889, 8vo, 2s. Qd. 
Goulburn, E. M.: A Manual of Confirmation. London : Rivington, 1855, 

11th ed., 1884, 8vo, Is. 6d. 
Jones, Miss C. A.: Stories on the Church Catechism. London : Masters, 

1879-81, 4 vols. ; 2d ed., 1887, 16mo, 10s. 
Maclear, G-. F.: Class-book of the Catechism of the Church of England. 

London : Macmillan, 1868 ; 6th ed., 1878, 18mo, Is. 6& 
Same : Manual of Instruction for Confirmation and First Communion. 

Same, 1869, many later edd., 32mo, 2s. 
Sherwood, Mrs. Mary Martha : Stories Explanatory of the Church 

Catechism. London : Houlston ; New York : Whittaker, 1852, 8vo, 3s. 

6d., $1.25. 
Steel, R.: The Shorter Catechism, with Proofs, Analysis and Illustrative 

Anecdotes. London : Nelson, 1884, cr. 8vo, 2s. 6d. 
Whyte, A.: The Shorter Catechism. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1883, 

cr. 8vo, 2s. 6d. 
Wordsworth, Charles : Catechisis, or Christian Instruction Prepara- 
tory to Confirmation and Communion. London : Rivington, 1868 ; 2d ed. 

1880, cr. 8vo, 2s. 

SUNDAY SCHOOL WORE. 

Gregory A. : Robert Bailees : a History of the Origin, of Sunday Schools. 
London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1877; 2d ed., 1880, 8vo, Is. 6d. 

Trumbull, H. C. : Teaching and Teachers; or the Sunday- School Teacher's 
Teaching Work, and the other Work of the Sunday •Sclwol Teacher. Phila- 
delphia : Wattles, 1885, 12mo. $1.50. 

Same: The Sunday School: its Origin, Mission, Methods, and Auxiliaries. 
Phila.: Wattles, 1888, 8vo, $1.50. 

Vincent, J. H. : The Modern Sunday-School. New York: Phillips & Hunt, 
1887, 12mo, $1.00. 

590 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 55 

Watson, W. H. : First Fifty Tears of the Sunday School. London : Sunday 
School Union, 1872, 8vo, Is. 4& 

Worden, J. A. : The Bible Teacher's Guide ; or Methods of Work in the Sab- 
bath School. Philadelphia: Pres. Bd. Pub., 1892, 12mo, 25 cts. 
Pastoral Theology. 

Beck, J. T. : Eng. trans. Pastoral Tfieohgy of the New Testament. Edin- 
burgh: T. & T. Clark, New York: Scribner, 1885, p. 8vo, 6*., $2.25. 

Blaikie, W. G. : For tlie Work of the Ministry. London : Nisbet, 1873 ; 
2d ed. , 1875, 8vo, 5s. 
A good book. 

Cutler, T. L. : How to be a Pastor. New York: Baker & Taylor Co., 
1890, 16mo, 75 cts. 

Fairbairn, P.: Pastoral TJieology. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1875, 8vo, 
6s. (New York: Scribner, $2.50.) 
One of the best treatises. 

Harms, Claus: Pastoraltheologie. In Reden an Theologiestudirende. 5th 

ed. Gotha: F. A. Perthes, 1892, 2 parts, 4.80 marks. 

In "Bibliothek theologischer Klassiker." Under the three divisions the 
preacher, the priest, and the pastor. 

Hoppix, J. M. : Pastoral Tfieology. New York : Funk & Wagnalls, 1884, 

8vo, $2.50. 
Little johx, A. N.: The Christian Ministry at the Close of the Nineteenth 

Century. New York : Whittaker, 18,4, 8vo, $2.50. 
MAll, S.: The Pastoral Care; or practical Hints on the Constitution, 

Discipline and Services of Congregational or Independent Churches, and 

the various Branches of Ministeral Duty in Reference to the same. 2d 

ed. London: Hodder, 1875, 12mo, 2s. Qd. 

Helpful to those ontside of English Independency. 
VrxET, A. : Pastoral Theology, the Theory of a Gospel Ministry, Tr. by T. 

H. Skinner. New York: Ivison, 1853, 12mo, $1.50. 
Wells, J. D.: The Pastor in the Sick-room. Philadelphia: Pres. Bd. , 

1893, pp. iv, 128, 16mo, 50 cts. 
Willcox, G-. B. : Tfie Pastor amidst His Flock. New York : Am. Tract 

Soc, 1890, 12mo, $1.00. 

LITURG1C. 

Hammond, C. E. : Ancient Liturgies, Eastern and Western. Oxford : 
Clarendon Press, 1878, cr. 8vo, 10s. Qd. Appendix, 1878, Is. Qd. 

Littledale, R. F. : Offices from the Service Books of the Eastern Church. 
London; Williams, 1863 ; 2d ed., 1867, 8vo, 3s. Qd. 

Neale, J. M.: Liturgies of Sts. Mark, James, Clement, Chrysostom, and 
Church of Malabar. London : Hayes, 1859 ; 2d ed. , 1868. 12mo, 6s. 

Same : Essays on Liturgiology and Church History. London : Saunders, 
1863, 2d ed., 1867, 8vo, 18s. 

Roman Breviary. Trans, by John Marquess of Bute. London: Black- 
woods, 1879^ 2 vols. , p. 8vo, 42s. 

Swainson, C. A.: The Greek Liturgies. Cambridge University Press, 
1884, 4to, 15s. 

PRAYER BOOK. 
Blunt, J. H. : Annotated Book of Common Prayer. London: Rivington, 
1866, 7th ed., 1883, 4to, 10s. Qd. 

591 



56 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

Daniel, E. : The Prayer-Book: its History, Language, and Contents. Lon- 
don : Wells Gardner, 1877, 16th ed., 1892 ; cr. 8vo, 6s. 

Humphry, W. G.: Historical and Explanatory Treatise on the Book of 
Common Prayer. London : Parker & Son, 1853 ; 7th ed., London & 
New York: Macmillan, 1892, 16mo, 2s. 6d, 75 cts. 

Huntington, W. R.: Short History of " The Book of Common Prayer." 
New York : Whittaker, 1883, pp. iii, 234, 12mo, $1.00. 

Procter, F. : History of the Book of Common Prayer. London : Macmil- 
lan, 1855 ; 18th ed., 1889, p. 8vo, 10s. 6d. 

HYMNOLOGY. 
Duffield, S. W. : English Hymns : their Authors and History. New York 

and London : Funk & Wagnalls, 1886, 8vo, $3.00 net. 
Same : The Latin Hymn Writers and their Hymns. Same : 1889, 8vo, 

$3.00 net. 

Posthumous, ed. by K. E. Thompson. 

Hatfield, E. F. : The Poets of the Church. New York : Randolph, 1884, 

8vo, $1.50. 
Julian, J. : Dictionary of Hymnology. London : Murray ; New York : 

Scribner, 1892, 8vo, 42s., $10.00. 

At least 10 years in preparation ; aims at the same standard character as Murray's 
other dictionaries. 
Miller, Josiah : Singers and Songs of the Church. London : Longmans, 

1866 ; 2d ed., 1869, p. 8vo, 10s. 6& 
Nutter, C. S. : Historic Hymnists. A Portrait Gallery of Great Hymn 

Writers. Boston : the Author, 1893, pp. 208, 4to, $2.50. 
Parker, W. H. : The Psalmody of the Church : its Authors, Singers and 

Uses. New York and Chicago : F. H. Revell & Co., 1892, 4to, $1.50. 
Schaff, P. : Christ in Song. New York : Randolph, 1868, sm. 4to, $2.50. 
Selborne, Earl : Hymns : their History and Development in the Greek and 

Latin Churches, Germany and Great Britain. London : Black, 1893, pp. 

210, 12mo, 3s. 6d 

MISSIONS. 

I. Encyclopaedias. 

Bliss, E. M. : Encyclopaedia of Missions. New York : Funk & Wagnalls, 
1891, 2 vols., 8vo, $12.00. 

Contains maps and a missionary bibliography (Vol. I., 575-661). 

Report of the Centenary Conference on the Protestant Missions of the World, 
held in Exeter Hall {June §th-l§th), London, 1888. Ed. by Rev. James 
Johnston, F.S.S., Secretary of the Conference. London: Nisbet, 
1888, 2 vols., 8vo, 7s. Qd. 

Is a thesaurus of information. 

II. Maps. 

Church Missionary Society Atlas. London : Ch. Mission House, 7th ed. , 

1887, 8vo, 3s. Qd. 
Grundemann, R.: Missionsatlas. Gotha: Perthes, 1867-71, 4to, 30 

marks. Kleiner Missionsatlas. Calw u. Stuttgart : Vereinsbuchhand- 

lung, 1883 ; 2d ed., 1885, 2 marks. 

592 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 57 

Werner, O. : Katholischer Missionsatlas. Freiburg im Br. : Herder, 1885 ; 
2d ed., 1885, 4to, 4 marks. 

III. General Histories. 

Hodder, E. : Conquests of the Cross. London: Cassell, 1890-91, 3 vols., 

8vo, 27s. 
Lowe, J.: Medical Missions : their Place and Power. London : Unwin, 

1886; 3d ed., 1891, 2s. 6d. New York : Revell, pp. 292, 12mo, $1.50. 
Robson, J. : Outlines of Protestant Missions. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 

1885, 16mo, 6d. 
Smith, G-. : Short History of Christian Missions. Edinburgh. : T. & T. Clark, 

1884; 2d ed., 1886, 8vo, 2s. Qd. 
Smith, T. : Mediceval Missions. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1880, 8vo, 4s. 

6& 
Stevenson, W. F. : The Dawn of the Modern Mission. Edinburgh : Mac- 

niven ; New York : Armstrong, 1888, 12mo, 2s. Qd. , 90 cts. 
Todd, E. S.: Christian Missions in the Vdth Century. New York : Hunt 

& Eaton, 1890, 12mo, 75 cts. 
Warneck, G. : Eng. trans. Outline of the History of Protestant Missions. 

Edinburgh : J. Gemmell, 1884, 8vo, 3s. 6c?. 
Young, R.: Modem Missions: their Trials and their Triumphs. London 

and New York : Cassell, 1881 ; 3d ed., 1886, 12mo, 5s., $2.00. 
Same : Light in Lands of Darkness. Same : 1883 ; 3d ed., 1884, 12mo, 6s., 

$2.00. 

IV. Special Histories. 

Missions of the American Board. By Rufus Anderson. Boston : Cong. 

Pub. Soc, 1870-74, 5 vols., 12mo, ea. $1.50. 
of the (Northern) Baptist Church. By S. F. Smith. Boston : Am. 

Bap. Union, 1879 ; n. e., 1883. 

of the (Southern) Baptist Convention. By H. A. Tupper. Phila- 



delphia: Am. Bap. Pub. Soc, 1880, 8vo, $3.50; continued to 1890. 
Richmond, Va.: For. Mis. Bd., 1891. 

-, Baptist, in Foreign Lands, from Carey to the Present Bate. By 



G. W. Hervey. St. Louis: Barns, 1884, 8vo, $3.00. 

of the Church Missionary Society (Church of England). By Emily 



Headland. London : Nisbet, 1892, p. 8vo. 3s. Qd. 

of the Methodist Episcopal Church. By J. M. Reid. New York : 



Phillips & Hunt, 1879, 2 vols., 12mo, $3.00. 

First Decade of the Woman's Foreign Missionary Society M. E. 



Church. By M. D. Wheeler. New York : Phillips & Hunt, 1881, 
12mo, $1.50. 

of the M. E. Church (South). By Wilson. Nashville Pub. Soc, 



1884, 8vo. 

of the Moravians. By A. C. Thompson. New York : Scribner, 



1882, 12mo, $2.00. 

of the Presbyterian Church, V. S. A. By J. C. Lowrie. New 



York : Pres. Bd., 1854 ; 2d ed., 1868. 

of the Protestant Episcopal Church, U. S. A. By S. D. Denison. 



Part I. New York : Bd. of Missions, 1871. 

593 



58 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

Missions of the Reformed {Butch) Church in America. By Mrs. M. E. 

Sangster. New York: Ref. Ch. Bd. Pub., 1887, 8vo. 
of Free Church of Scotland. By Geo. Smith. Edinburgh, 1879. 

V. Collected Biographical Sketches. 

Arnold-Forster, Mrs. F. E.: Heralds of the Cross; or, the Fulfilling of 
the Command. London : Hatchards, 1882 ; 2d ed. , 1885, p. 8vo, 5s. 

Japp, A. H. : Master Missionaries. London : Unwin. New York : Car- 
ter, 1880; 3d ed., 1883, 8vo, 3s. Qd., $1.50. 

Murray, A. W. : Eminent Workers for Christ. London : Nisbet, 1887, 
cr. 8vo, 5s. 

Pitman, Mrs. E. R.: Heroines of the Mission Field. London : Cassell, 

1880, 8vo, 5s. 

Walsh, W. P. : Heroes of the Mission Field. London : Hodder. New 
York : Whittaker, 1879 ; 3d ed., 1892, pp. 246, p. 8vo, 2s. 6d. 

Same : Modern Heroes of the Mission Field. Same : 1882 ; 3d ed. , 1892, 
pp. 350, p. 8vo, 2s. 6& 

Yonge, C. M. : Pioneers and Founders; or, Recent Workers in the Mission* 
field. London : Macmillan, 1871 ; 2d ed., 1878, 8vo, 6s. 

VI. Individual Biographies. 

Burns, W. C. (China). By May Burns. London : Nisbet, 1860 ; 4th ed. , 

1870, 8vo, 6s 
Brainerd, Dayid (North American Indians). By Jonathan Edwards. 

(Ed. J. M. Sherwood.) New York : Funk & Wagnalls, 1884, 12mo, 

$1.50. 
Carey, Wm. (India). By Geo. Smith. London : Murray, 1885 ; 2d ed., 

1887, 8vo, 7s. Qd, 

Duff, Alex. (India). By Geo. Smith. London : Hodder, 1879 ; 2d ed., 

1881, 8vo, 10s. Qd. 

Ellis, William (Madagascar). By John Eimeo Ellis. London : Murray, 
1873, 8vo, 10s. Gd. 

Goodell, William (Turkey). By E. D. G. Prime. New York : Carter, 
1876 ; n. e., 1883, 12mo, $1.50. 

Hannington, James (Central Africa). By E. C Dawson. London : See- 
ley, 1886 ; 2d ed., 1888, 2s. Qd. 

Same : Last Journals : Through Palestine in 1884, and Masai Land in 
1885. Same, 1888, 3s. Qd. 

Judson, Adoniram (Burmah). By Edward Judson. New York : 
Randolph, 1883, 8vo, $2.00. 

Keith-Falconer, Ion (Arabia). By R. Sinker. London : Bell & Son, 

1888, 8vo, 4s. 

Livingstone, Dayid (Africa). By W. G. Blaikie. London: Murray. 

New York : Harper, 1881 ; 3d ed., 1882, 8vo, 15s., $3.50. 
Same : By Robert Smiles. London and New York : Cassell, 1885, 8vo, Is., 

50 cts. 
Martyn, Henry (Persia). By Geo. Smith. London: Murray. New 

York : Re veil, 1892, pp. vii, 580, 8vo, 10s. 6d., $3.00. 
Moffat, Robert and Mary (Africa). By J. S. Moffat. London: 

Unwin, 1885 ; 3d ed., 1888, p. 8vo., 3s. Qd. 

594 



A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 59 

Neesima, Joseph Hardy (Japan). By A. S. Hardy. Boston : Hough- 
ton, Mifflin & Co., 1891, pp. vii, 350, 12mo, $2.00. 

Patteson, John Coleridge (South Seas). By C. M. Yonge. London 
and New York : Macmillan, 1873, 2 vols., 8vo, 30s., $5.00. 

Paton, John G. (South Seas). Autobiography. New York : Carter, 
1889-90, 2 parts, 8vo, $3.00. 

Schattffler, William Gottlieb (Turkey). Autobiography. New York : 
Randolph, 1888, 12mo, $1.25. , 

Williams, John (Polynesia). By John Campbell. London: Snow, 1842, 
n. e., 1866, 12mo, 2s. 

Williams, Samuel Wells (China). By his son, Frederick Wells Will- 
iams. New York: Putnam, 1888, 8vo, $3.00. 

Wilson, John (India). By George Smith. London : Murray, 1878 ; 2d 
ed., 1879, 8vo, 9s. 

Xavier, Francis (R. C). By H. J. Colei*idge. London: Burns & Oates, 
1872-73, 2 vols., 8vo, 21s. New ed., 1881, 8vo. 

Zeisberger, Dayid (North American Indians). By E. de Schweinitz. 
Philadelphia : Lippincott, 1870, 8vo, $3.50. 

VII. Miscellaneous. 
Gordon, A. J. : The Holy Spirit in Missions. New York: Revell, 1893, pp. 

241, 12mo, $1.25. 
Johnston, J. : A Century of Christian Progress and Its Lessons. London: 

Nisbet, 1888 ; 2d ed., 1889, 8vo, Is. 
Laurie, T. : The My Volume ; or, the Contributions of our Foreign Missions 

to Science and Human Well-being. Boston: A. B. C. F. M., 1881 ; 2d ed., 

1885, 8vo, $3.00. 
Ligglns, J. : The Great Value and Success of Foreign Missions. Proved 

by Distinguished Witnesses. New York : Baker & Taylor Co., 1888, 

12mo, 75 cents. 
Pattison, S. R. : Gospel Ethnology. London : Religious Tract Soc. , 1887, 

2d ed. Same, New York : Revell, 1891, pp. 224, 12mo, 2s. 6d., $1.00. 
Pierson, A. T. : The Crisis of Missions ; or, the Voice out of the Cloud. 

New York : Carter, 1886 (now Baker & Taylor Co.), 16mo, $1.25. 
Same : The Divine Enterprise of Missions. New York : Baker & Taylor 

Co., 1891, pp. 333, 16mo, $1.25. 
Same : The Miracles of Missions. New York : Funk & Wagnalls' Co. , 

1891, pp. 193, 16mo, $1.00. 
Thompson, A. C. : Foreign Missions : their place in the Pastorate, in 

Prayer, and in Conferences. New York : Scribner, 1889, 12mo, $1.75. 
Warneck, G. : Eng. trans. Modern Missions and Culture. Edinburgh : 

J. Gemmell, 1883, cr. 8vo, 4s. 6d. 
Same : Evangelische Missionslehre. Ein missionstheoretischer Versuch. 

Gotha : Perthes, 1892-3, 2 parts, 8vo, each 5 marks. 

SAL VATION ARMY. 

Booth, Mrs. Catherine, " The Mother of the Salvation Army," wife of 
" General" Booth. Life, by Mrs. F. de L. Booth-Tucker (her daughter). 
London : Salvation Army, 1892, 2 vols., 8vo, 15s. 

595 



60 A MINISTERIAL LIBRARY. 

Booth, Mrs. W. : Popular Christianity. London: Salvation Army, 

1890, 3d ed. same year, 1*. 
Booth, B. : New York's Inferno. New York, 1893. 
Booth, Mrs. W. : Aggressive Christianity. London: Salvation Army, 

1881 ; 5th ed., 1890, 12mo, Is. 
Booth, W. : In Darkest England, and the Way Out. London : Salvation 

Army. New York : Funk & Wagnalls, 1890, 8vo, 3s. 6d., $1.50. 



596 



